Artistic landscape of the former State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia defined by the Gothic crucifixes

The aim of this article is to show a broad artistic panorama of Gothic sculpture of the Teutonic Order State in Prussia. It takes into consideration a few characteristic iconographical types like shrine Madonna and the Beautiful Madonna. But it points out that the numerously preserved woodcarved crucifixes shape the picture of three-dimensional figurative arts of the said state in the eyes of academics and audience. A synthetic review of written sources and scientific approaches was presented, as well as a methodology. Various academic views on one crucifix were shown. Artistic influences and exchange as part of the art of Baltic coast, Central and Western Europe were emphasized. Unpublished, archival photographs were presented and analysed. They show six crucifixes, up to now not known from illustrations.The aim of this article is to show a broad artistic panorama of Gothic sculpture of the Teutonic Order State in Prussia. It takes into consideration a few characteristic iconographical types like shrine Madonna and the Beautiful Madonna. But it points out that the numerously preserved woodcarved crucifixes shape the picture of three-dimensional figurative arts of the said state in the eyes of academics and audience. A synthetic review of written sources and scientific approaches was presented, as well as a methodology. Various academic views on one crucifix were shown. Artistic influences and exchange as part of the art of Baltic coast, Central and Western Europe were emphasized. Unpublished, archival photographs were presented and analysed. They show six crucifixes, up to now not known from illustrations

Późnobarokowy sobór św. Mikołaja w Sankt Petersburgu, dzieło Sawwy Iwanowicza Czewakińskiego na styku epok

The aim of the article is to allow for a closer look at the architecture of St. Nicolas Cathedral of Saint Petersburg build in 1753-1762, and its place in the history of art. It is the most important and best-preserved artistic achievement of the Russian architect Savva Chevakinsky, as well as a glorious example of Elizabethan baroque style. The maker of the cathedral boasts a rich and versatile project output. He then educated subsequent artists significant to the history of architecture. Chevakinsky possessed deep and comprehensive preparation, enabling him to accept miscellaneous commission orders. In his most important masterpiece the architect included references to Old Russian architecture and interestingly interpreted artistic motifs used in leading contemporary European architecture. The artist experienced an abrupt change of the operative style, from baroque to classicism. His decision to withdraw from artistic life was obviously premature. The article depicts that exciting historic figure through the prism of his architectonic achievements, the people he encountered over his lifespan as well as his own vicissitudes of life. Saint Petersburg’s architecture of the Middle of 18th century reflected a shift in both stylistic periods as well as the cultural and aesthetic approach of the ruling elites of the time

Saint Bridget of Sweden and the Teutonic Knights. Her Revelations in the context of the Gothic crucifix from the Holy Trinity Cathedral in Kulmsee (Chełmża) and the legacy of other mystics

The article presents an analysis of the early fifteenth-century wood-carved crucifix from the Holy Trinity cathedral in Kulmsee (Chełmża) in the context of the fourteenth-century Brigidian Revelations. The crucifix was created in a unique in the Teutonic Order State four-nails type. It differs from other, more distant, and older, crucifixes of the four-nails type. In my opinion, the crucifix, because of its inspirations which come from the Revelations of Saint Bridget of Sweden, is another type of a mystical work of art; however, it does not belong to the fourteenth-century widespread type of mystical, extremely suffering crucifixes. My intention is to show that the reception of ideas and motifs in the Gothic times could also be apolitical, although it might be considered a paradox since we have in mind some critical remarks of Saint Bridget towards the Teutonic Order. Furthermore, I emphasise that in the fourteenth century, which was a period distinguished by flourishing mysticism, were present certain similarities in writings of various mystics, which can be compared to a style of the particular time – in German, “Zeitstil”. The discussed crucifix is another evidence that in Christian art the sculptors and their instructors had tremendous artistic licence, and the sacred image along with its visual language was of significant importance for the piety of that period.The article presents an analysis of the early fifteenth-century wood-carved crucifix from the Holy Trinity cathedral in Kulmsee (Chełmża) in the context of the fourteenth-century Brigidian Revelations. The crucifix was created in a unique in the Teutonic Order State four-nails type. It differs from other, more distant, and older, crucifixes of the four-nails type. In my opinion, the crucifix, because of its inspirations which come from the Revelations of Saint Bridget of Sweden, is another type of a mystical work of art; however, it does not belong to the fourteenth-century widespread type of mystical, extremely suffering crucifixes. My intention is to show that the reception of ideas and motifs in the Gothic times could also be apolitical, although it might be considered a paradox since we have in mind some critical remarks of Saint Bridget towards the Teutonic Order. Furthermore, I emphasise that in the fourteenth century, which was a period distinguished by flourishing mysticism, were present certain similarities in writings of various mystics, which can be compared to a style of the particular time – in German, “Zeitstil”. The discussed crucifix is another evidence that in Christian art the sculptors and their instructors had tremendous artistic licence, and the sacred image along with its visual language was of significant importance for the piety of that period

Krucyfiks na Drzewie Życia z dominikańskiego kościoła św. Mikołaja w Toruniu – nowe spojrzenie

The following article was written basing on the MA thesis, concerning one of the best known Gothic masterpieces in Poland. The sculpture appears in many synthesis works, textbooks and detailed scientific elaborations and the crucifix is often referred to. There have already been many attempts to contribute to present state of research, various opinions concerning the dating and the object’s stylistic genesis have appeared, nevertheless it is also possible to look at this exceptional masterpiece with an unprejudiced fresh look. The article includes a list of quotations from the prophets’ bands and their sources from ‘Wulgata’ (the Vulgate), together with the translation made by priest Jakub Wujek. The sources of the Tree of Life, reaching as far back as the texts of St. Bonaventure and earlier artistic realizations of Bonaventurian iconography were discussed. To illustrate to the readers all the riches of cumulated artistic motifs and subtle character of forms of this mystical crucifix, the selection of German Dominican mysticism representatives’ quotations were presented in reference to the Crucified image categories, its reception, contemplation, compassio by the crowd gathered underneath, consisting of its viewers and the masterpiece ordering persons, combination of beauty, suffering and nature impressions, as well as auxiliary images’ role in 14th c Passion spirituality. Subjecting two modern inventories to analysis, basing on the studies of mediaeval Indulgence documents, but also on the designs of St. Nicolas church from about half of 18th c, the article author tried to establish anew the references to the Tree of Life, their impact on masterpiece’s dating and locating in Dominican Convent. On the grounds of the literature obtained so far, as well as the crucifixes comparison, the type was defined as late, even more softened example of Strasburg – Westphalian model. This debate can be a starting point for the attempt to outline stylistic genesis by turning attention to a number of analogies to the crucifix from Lassnitz, originating presumably from The Benedictine collegiate church in Sankt Lambrecht in Styria. The other example of Styrian Mystical Crucifixions series – the crucifix from Friesach, indicates the analogies in painting question concerning meander-like stylistics of drooping folds of the perizonium. The work from Lassnitz is connected with Toruń one by many artistic elements, the way of spatial sculpture arrangement, particularly in legs, chest and perizonium composition. We can find in it stylistic features, which were the determinants of the style of Toruń masterpiece for Karl Heinz Clasen in 1939. A part of the artistic motifs under discussion in other works of art subjected to analysis indicates their general belongingness to a defined style of that period, mainly as far as perizonium motifs are concerned. However, the analogies, creating a certain evolutionary sequence reaching with its roots Giotto’s art and Czech paintings, indicate painting inspirations in the perizonium folds’ stylistics of Toruń work. Present dating of the sculpture, due to early analogies, can be pushed back, till the times after 1360.Niniejszy artykuł powstał w oparciu o pracę magisterską, dotyczącą jednego z najbardziej znanych dzieł gotyckich w Polsce – krucyfiksu na Drzewie Życia z dominikańskiego kościoła św. Mikołaja w Toruniu. Rzeźba pojawiała się na kartach syntez, podręczników, wielu szczegółowych opracowań naukowych. Było wiele prób wniesienia nowych ustaleń do stanu badań, prezentowano różne opinie dotyczące datowania i odnoszące się do genezy stylistycznej, mimo tego warto na to wyjątkowej klasy dzieło spojrzeć po raz kolejny świeżym okiem. W artykule opublikowano cytaty z banderol proroków oraz ich źródła w Wulgacie wraz z tłumaczeniem księdza Jakuba Wujka. Omówiono źródła Drzewa Życia sięgając po teksty św. Bonawentury oraz po wcześniejsze realizacje artystyczne ikonografii bonawenturiańskiej. Pragnąc przybliżyć czytelnikowi bogactwo nagromadzonych motywów artystycznych i subtelność formy tego mistycznego krucyfiksu przedstawiono wybór cytatów dominikańskich mistyków nadreńskich w kategoriach wyglądu Ukrzyżowanego, jego odbioru, kontemplacji, compassio przez zgromadzonych pod nim wiernych, łączenia wrażeń piękna, cierpienia i natury, tudzież pomocniczej roli obrazów w czternastowiecznej duchowości pasyjnej. Poddając analizie dwa inwentarze nowożytne oraz dokumenty odpustowe z czasów średniowiecza, a także plany kościoła św. Mikołaja z około połowy XVIII wieku, spróbowano na nowo ustalić ich odniesienie do Drzewa Życia, ich wpływ na datację i lokalizację dzieła w konwencie dominikańskim. Opierając się na dotychczasowej literaturze i porównując krucyfiks z innymi zachowanymi dziełami określono zabytek toruński jako późny, jeszcze bardziej złagodzony przykład typu strasbursko-westfalskiego. To ustalenie stanowi punkt wyjścia do próby nakreślenia genezy stylistycznej poprzez zwrócenie uwagi na szereg analogii do krucyfiksu z Lassnitz, pochodzącego zapewne z kolegiaty benedyktyńskiej w Sankt Lambrecht w Styrii. Inny przykład serii styryjskich Ukrzyżowań Mistycznych – krucyfiks z Friesach wykazuje analogie w zakresie malarskiej stylistyki meandrycznych fałd zwisów perizonium. Dzieło z Lassnitz łączy z toruńskim szereg elementów artystycznych i sposób ich przestrzennego rozdysponowania w kompozycji rzeźby, zwłaszcza w partii nóg, perizonium i klatki piersiowej. Można odnaleźć w nim cechy, które były wyznacznikami stylu toruńskiego dzieła dla Karla Heinza Clasena już w 1939 roku. Część omawianych motywów artystycznych w innych analizowanych dziełach sztuki wskazuje na ich ogólną przynależność do stylistyki ówczesnych czasów, głównie w odniesieniu do motywu perizonium. Niemniej analogie, tworzące pewien ewolucyjny ciąg sięgający korzeniami sztuki Giotta i malowideł czeskich, wskazują na malarskie inspiracje w sposobie drapowania fałd perizonium toruńskiego dzieła. Dotychczasową datację dzieła ze względu na wczesne analogie można więc nieco cofnąć, do czasów po 1360 roku

Gotyckie „krucyfiksy obejmujące” i ich snycerskie przykłady z Würzburga, Suhl-Heinrichs i Helmstedt

Gothic “embracing crucifixes” carved in wood, although known from only a few examples, constitute a real iconographic phenomenon of the 14th century worth closer scrutiny and renewed appraisal. These sizeable objects – be it of natural, or larger-than-life dimensions - are characterized by a particular disposition of hands; moreover, they also differ from later examples, which are less symbolic, more free in composition, and better corresponding to painterly and graphic images of the subject. The nomenclature of “embracing crucifixes” is reviewed in the paper, and the question of their visual classification as being part of the Man of Sorrows type revisited. The interpretation of these objects must inevitably refer to the essential vision of St. Bernard of Clairvaux – the Amplexus Christi. The motif of embrace is also present in writings of other medieval mystics, theologians and chroniclers. The theme of tender and devoted love towards God, and of desire for cosuffering is especially legible with Henry Suso. However, of highest importance is the consideration of fragments of sermons and treatises by Johannes Eckhart von Hochheim, “the master of life and word”. The motif of embrace, closeness and submersion of human soul in God is constantly present in his writings. These sources form the background necessary to undertake any attempt at interpretation of works of art in question, even if the themes of spiritual embrace and closeness are more widespread in literature and art of the period, particularly in the first half of the 14th century. In visual sphere, they include the related subject of Allegory of Good and Bad Prayer, but significant affinities with the “embracing crucifixes”, whether visible in formal gesture, or in embodiment of theological idea, also exist in some sculptural or painterly representations of Christ in Tomb, Crucifixion, Lamentation, Virgin of Mercy, and especially Descent from the Cross

Inkluzje spraw polityczno-społecznych i światopoglądowych w badaniach z zakresu historii sztuki średniowiecznej. Studia przypadku

Sztuka średniowieczna nierzadko pełniła funkcje polityczne. Po nakreśleniu zakresu i przykładu aspektów politycznych w iluminatorstwie ottońskim następuje analiza ujęć sztuki średniowiecznej. Podejście do architektury romańskiej może być nacechowane światopoglądem charakterystycznym dla danej epoki. Tym ważniejsze są szeroko zakrojone, przeprowadzane badania obejmujące architekturę romańską w Polsce. Podejmowane są próby demitologizacji sztuki i odideologizowania podejścia do niej. Omówiono dwa odmienne przykłady upolitycznienia odbioru dwóch bardzo znanych gotyckich statui. Rozważania, których celem było wskazanie aspektów politycznych w podejściu do dzieł sztuki w ich analizach, prowadzą do wniosku o konieczności uwzględniania zmiennego czynnika politycznego, ale też zwracania uwagi na dzieła sztuki po prostu jako obiekty artystyczne. &nbsp

Rozwojowe ciągi formalno-ideowe w ramach konstrukcji czasu artystycznego George’a Kublera

In the article an attempt was made to take a new look at the methodology of an acclaimed art historian George Kubler, still useful and mind-stirring to researchers. A reference was made to a group of concepts, including in particular system age and above all to logic and some breakthrough, sectional ways of thinking about changes embracing an artistic output. The significance of Kubler’s concept is of universal character, including the whole of the history of art discipline, the artefacts examined by it as well as artistic-cultural processes. The usefulness of the research method first presented in 1962 seems to transgress the boundaries of history of art as a scientific discipline. The most important, theoretical treatise was taken into account: The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things in both Polish and English versions. The basis for consideration was later complemented by Kubler’s methodological articles, further publications from his scientific output, reviews and introductions to the main paper. The support was the complex reception of Kubler’s ideas in Polish and worldwide academic publishings. Attention was paid to the possibilities brought about by the introduction into the circle of numerous comparisons and contexts of the author’s mind as well as other sciences. Namely, an indication was made to the parallel methods and ways of thinking derived from the science of algorhythms and informatics, developing as the Shape of Time was being written. Kubler’s work can be classified as part of philosophy of art or theory of art discipline. It is natural to compare it to Heraklitean sentences. Among art historians Henri Focillon’s output was referred to as having the main influence upon Kubler. At the same time, the author of the Shape of Time participated in the translation of the main work of his teacher – Life of Forms in Art. It is still worthwhile to read and use the thoughts included in Kubler’s works.In the article an attempt was made to take a new look at the methodology of an acclaimed art historian George Kubler, still useful and mind-stirring to researchers. A reference was made to a group of concepts, including in particular system age and above all to logic and some breakthrough, sectional ways of thinking about changes embracing an artistic output. The significance of Kubler’s concept is of universal character, including the whole of the history of art discipline, the artefacts examined by it as well as artistic-cultural processes. The usefulness of the research method first presented in 1962 seems to transgress the boundaries of history of art as a scientific discipline. The most important, theoretical treatise was taken into account: The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things in both Polish and English versions. The basis for consideration was later complemented by Kubler’s methodological articles, further publications from his scientific output, reviews and introductions to the main paper. The support was the complex reception of Kubler’s ideas in Polish and worldwide academic publishings. Attention was paid to the possibilities brought about by the introduction into the circle of numerous comparisons and contexts of the author’s mind as well as other sciences. Namely, an indication was made to the parallel methods and ways of thinking derived from the science of algorhythms and informatics, developing as the Shape of Time was being written. Kubler’s work can be classified as part of philosophy of art or theory of art discipline. It is natural to compare it to Heraklitean sentences. Among art historians Henri Focillon’s output was referred to as having the main influence upon Kubler. At the same time, the author of the Shape of Time participated in the translation of the main work of his teacher – Life of Forms in Art. It is still worthwhile to read and use the thoughts included in Kubler’s works

Późnobarokowy sobór św. Mikołaja w Sankt Petersburgu, dzieło Sawwy Iwanowicza Czewakińskiego na styku epok

The aim of the article is to allow for a closer look at the architecture of St. Nicolas Cathedral of Saint Petersburg build in 1753-1762, and its place in the history of art. It is the most important and best-preserved artistic achievement of the Russian architect Savva Chevakinsky, as well as a glorious example of Elizabethan baroque style. The maker of the cathedral boasts a rich and versatile project output. He then educated subsequent artists significant to the history of architecture. Chevakinsky possessed deep and comprehensive preparation, enabling him to accept miscellaneous commission orders. In his most important masterpiece the architect included references to Old Russian architecture and interestingly interpreted artistic motifs used in leading contemporary European architecture. The artist experienced an abrupt change of the operative style, from baroque to classicism. His decision to withdraw from artistic life was obviously premature. The article depicts that exciting historic figure through the prism of his architectonic achievements, the people he encountered over his lifespan as well as his own vicissitudes of life. Saint Petersburg’s architecture of the Middle of 18th century reflected a shift in both stylistic periods as well as the cultural and aesthetic approach of the ruling elites of the time.The aim of the article is to allow for a closer look at the architecture of St. Nicolas Cathedral of Saint Petersburg build in 1753-1762, and its place in the history of art. It is the most important and best-preserved artistic achievement of the Russian architect Savva Chevakinsky, as well as a glorious example of Elizabethan baroque style. The maker of the cathedral boasts a rich and versatile project output. He then educated subsequent artists significant to the history of architecture. Chevakinsky possessed deep and comprehensive preparation, enabling him to accept miscellaneous commission orders. In his most important masterpiece the architect included references to Old Russian architecture and interestingly interpreted artistic motifs used in leading contemporary European architecture. The artist experienced an abrupt change of the operative style, from baroque to classicism. His decision to withdraw from artistic life was obviously premature. The article depicts that exciting historic figure through the prism of his architectonic achievements, the people he encountered over his lifespan as well as his own vicissitudes of life. Saint Petersburg’s architecture of the Middle of 18th century reflected a shift in both stylistic periods as well as the cultural and aesthetic approach of the ruling elites of the time