Men and women without jobs: a study of factors predictive of psychological and physical health

For most individuals who lose their jobs, unemployment is a stressful life event. Yet, not all individuals react negatively to being unemployed. Recent research has focused on delineating the factors that might influence the unemployment experience. The purpose of this study was to investigate the roles of eight variables as predictors of mental health, cognitive impairment, physical health, and feelings about being unemployed for individuals without work. Also, because few studies have compared the unemployment experience of men and women, it was of interest to assess whether the independent variables were predictive of the unemployment experience for both men and women;Participants in this study included 247 unemployed individuals (128 men, 119 women) who were asked to complete a questionnaire while waiting to see a job counselor at a regional Job Service office. The questionnaire included measures assessing the following independent variables: (1) financial concerns; (2) financial difficulty; (3) objective income; (4) employment commitment (how much does work mean to the individual); (5) last job satisfaction; (6) job-seeking confidence; (7) time structure (degree to which individuals perceive their use of time to be structured and purposive); and (8) coping resources. Four outcome variables were assessed: mental health, cognitive impairment, physical symptoms, and unemployment negativity (how upset an individual is specifically about his/her unemployment);Multiple regression results for the total sample indicated that the independent variables explained 65% of the variance in mental health, 44% of the variance in cognitive impairment, 23% of the variance in physical symptoms, and 41% of the variance in unemployment negativity. Time structure was the best predictor for all four of the outcome variables. Multiple regression results were also compared for men versus women. The pattern of findings were similar for both groups, although the variance accounted for in each of the outcome variables was higher for men than for women. Consistent with the results for the total sample, time structure was the best predictor for the four outcome variables for both men and women. This research has implications for an increased understanding of the unemployment experience and also for interventions with unemployed groups

Turnover Processes in a Temporal Context: It's About Time

To better understand the process of organizational withdrawal, a turnover model incorporating dynamic predictors measured at five distinct points in time was examined by following a large, occupationally diverse sample over a two-year period. Results demonstrated that turnover can be predicted by perceived costs of turnover, organizational commitment, and critical events measured soon after entry into the organization, and unemployment rates, job satisfaction, and search for alternative jobs also become significant predictors when measured over time. Critical events also predicted turnover in a manner distinct from the operation of attitudes, consistent with the unfolding model (Lee & Mitchell, 1994). The path to turnover was marked by consistently low perceived costs of turnover and satisfaction, decreases in commitment, and increases in job search over time.

The job search grind: Perceived progress, self-reactions, and self-regulation of search effort.

Guided by theory and research on self-regulation and goal pursuit, we offer a framework for studying the dynamics of unemployed individuals' job search. A daily survey over three weeks demonstrated vacillation in job seeker affect and, to a lesser extent, "reemployment efficacy." Daily perceived job search progress was related to this vacillation. Lower perceived progress on any given day was related to more effort the following day. The study provides insights into the daily dynamics of job search and elucidates the roles of search progress, affect, and three key moderators-financial hardship, employment commitment, and "action-state orientation"-in explaining these dynamics

Moving beyond job search quantity: Towards a conceptualization and self-regulatory framework of job search quality

Abstract Job seeking is an important aspect throughout people's careers. Extant theory and research has focused on one particular dimension of job search, that is, intensity/effort (i.e., job search quantity), posing that intensity/effort importantly affects employment success. The present conceptual paper extends job search theory by arguing for the importance of job search quality in explaining job search and employment success. We conceptualize job search quality as consisting of process quality and product/behavior quality, and propose that high-quality job search products/behaviors are more likely with a high-quality job search process. A four-phased cyclical self-regulatory model is presented, specifying the components of job search process quality. We build theory regarding the interrelations between quality components, the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and the moderators of these relations. This theory offers new and more detailed explanations for previous findings, directions for future research, and practical guidelines regarding (re)employment success and services. At any point, many individuals engage in job seeking, including unemployed people searching for reemployment, employed people looking for a new job, school-leavers or graduating students seeking their first job, and nonworking people (re)entering the labor force In addition to these explanations, one may question whether effort/intensity and number of job search sources/activities are the only important components of people's job search behavior. Although various scholars have coined the notion of job search quality (i.e., Organizational Psychology Review 3(1) quality and the conditions that impact those relations. The purpose of this conceptual paper is threefold. First, it aims to identify and delineate the components of job search quality, as well as conceptualize the relations among those components. In doing so, we synthesize relevant research into a conceptual framework of job search quality. Second, we build theory regarding the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and the moderators of these relations. Third, this paper aims to push job seeking research into new directions, by challenging the field to develop, study, and incorporate assessments of job search quality in addition to just job search quantity. We argue that a better understanding of job search quality is essential to advance both research and practice regarding reemployment success and services. We begin with a brief overview of extant job search theory, portraying that previous research has defined job search as a multistage process, albeit without specific attention to quality. We then draw upon the marketing and total quality management literature to argue for a distinction between job search product quality and job search process quality, and for conceptualizing job search process quality as a highly selfregulated job search. Extending previous job search theory and models, we use extant selfregulatory theory and recent advancements in the self-regulation literature to develop the components of our multistage job search quality process framework (see Extant job search theory Previous research describes job search as involving specific behaviors to identify labor market alternatives, acquire information about these alternatives, and actively pursue job opportunities Job search is often conceptualized as a multiphased process, consisting of several sequential stages. In his job search model, Soelberg (1967) described a deliberation phase of evaluation and occupational choice, followed by an implementation phase during which people allocate time, money, and effort to the job search. Building on this idea, Blau (1994) identified a preparatory and an active job search phase. Also broader theories on human behavior and decision-making have been used to suggest different stages in the job search process. For example, In addition to the conceptualization of job search as a multiphased process, recent theorizing has emphasized the self-regulatory Van Hooft et al. 5 Although some of these theories and models (implicitly) recognize the importance of job search quality (i.e., Conceptualizing job search quality The underpinnings of our multicomponent model of job search quality originate from previous work on product/service quality in the marketing literature. Below we describe this research as related to the conceptualization of quality, and argue for distinguishing between job search product quality and job search process quality. Quality as a product versus process The concept of quality in general has multiple and often very broad or muddled definitions. Reeves and Bednar (1994) identified several types of definitions of product/ service quality, and reviewed each definition's strengths and weaknesses. Based on this review, job search quality can be conceptualized as performing one's job search activities in such a way that those meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties of the labor market (e.g., selecting organizations, recruiters, assessors, hiring managers, counselors). A strength of this conceptualization is its external, organizationoriented focus, since what is high quality ultimately depends on the evaluations of the demanding parties of the labor market. However, although the demanding parties' expectations include some universals, these are to a large extent idiosyncratic (e.g., in each industry different ideas prevail about what constitutes a high-quality résumé or interview). A remaining question thus is how job seekers should perform their job search activities in order to increase the chances to meet those (idiosyncratic) expectations. Therefore, this external perspective to quality should be complemented by an internal or job seeker perspective, which holds that a high-quality job search refers to a job search that conforms to certain set and established standards and specifications. This definition implies a focus on the job search process. That is, in order to develop the specific quality standards and specifications, the job search should be disaggregated in its composing elements, and quality standards should be developed for each element. These quality standards can then offer prescriptive guidelines for job seekers and their counselors as to how to conduct a high-quality job search, which should ultimately lead to job search products that likely meet/exceed the demanding parties' expectations. Thus, we argue for a distinction between an external, organization-oriented perspective towards quality, and an internal, job seeker perspective towards quality. The external perspective refers to job search quality as job search behaviors or products (i.e., networking Van Hooft et al. 7 behavior, résumés, application letters, interview behavior) that meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties at the labor market. Operationalization and measurement of job search quality according to this perspective by definition involves (to some extent subjective) ratings of for example recruiters, hiring managers, or employment counselors on the extent to which the job seeker's products (e.g., résumé, application letter) or behaviors (e.g., networking, interview behavior) meet/ exceed their expectations. The internal perspective, in contrast, focuses on job search quality as a job search process that conforms to certain standards and specifications. The conceptualization of quality as composed of process quality and product quality can be further substantiated using the total quality management (TQM) literature. The core idea of TQM is hat high-quality products are impossible without implementing high-quality processes Similarly to TQM, we argue that highquality job search products and behaviors are more likely when the job search process is of high quality, and that a high-quality job search process is characterized by cycles of planning and analysis of the performed activities, enabling continuous improvement and learning. That is, job search is a difficult and complex process, involving a wide array of available methods and channels to use, and multiple behaviors that job seekers are often relatively unfamiliar with. Oftentimes, it is unclear exactly which methods and behaviors are effective and which are not. With conscious and careful attention to planning, analysis of performed job search activities, and adjustment and improvement of one's job search behavior based on such analysis and feedback from the environment, it is more likely that job seekers can learn and enhance their performance in order to improve fit with the labor market demands and meet the recruiting organizations' expectations. Therefore, it is important to further explicate what a high-quality process exactly entails. Given the multiphased nature of the job search process, we pose that job search process quality cannot be conceptualized as a single one-dimensional construct, but is multidimensional in nature, encapsulating all phases of the job search process. The next sections focus on elaborating job search process quality, using self-regulation theory. Job search quality as a self-regulated process Self-regulation refers to ''those processes, internal and/or transactional, that enable an individual to guide his/her goal-directed activities over time and across changing circumstances (contexts)'' (Karoly, 1993, p. 25). Similarly, Zimmerman (2000, p. 14) defines self-regulation as processes of ''self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals.'' Self-regulation involves selfcontrol of attention, thoughts, affect, and behavior deliberately or automatically Self-regulation is especially needed in the attainment of distal goals that involve lengthy processes, composed of tasks low on intrinsic (activity-related) motivation and high on extrinsic (outcome-related) motivation Organizational Psychology Review 3(1) needed as those tasks are inherently pleasurable, interesting, and fun. However, for tasks that are difficult, boring, unpleasant, or otherwise aversive (i.e., low intrinsic motivation), but important to attain some valued goal (i.e., high extrinsic motivation), people need selfregulation (e.g., regulation of effort, reminding oneself of the valued outcome, maintenance actions directed at increasing interest) to ensure task persistence and performance. For most individuals, job search is characterized by this combination of low intrinsic and relatively high extrinsic motivation. That is, job search activities are rarely considered to be fun, enjoyable, and entertaining. Rather, the job search process is mostly experienced as difficult and full of negative emotions The cognitive forethought phases are succeeded by a behavioral phase of goal striving, directional maintenance, and volitional control during which self-regulation is needed to initiate and maintain the planned activities. Lastly, we propose that a high-quality job search process requires reflection and revision. That is, without thorough analysis and evaluation of one's job search behavior in the context of the established goals and based on the feedback from the environment, an upward cycle of learning and performance enhancement (which is an essential part of quality; cf. TQM, a process Summary and formal definitions of job search quality In summary, we argued that in conceptualizing job search quality one must distinguish between the quality of job search behaviors/products and the quality of the job search process. We further argued that higher quality behaviors/products are more likely the higher the process quality. Based on an organization-oriented, external perspective towards quality, we defined job search product quality as the extent to which a job seeker's job search behaviors/products meet/exceed the expectations of the demanding parties at the labor market. Furthermore, using a job seeker-oriented, internal perspective towards quality, job search process quality was conceptualized as the extent to which the process conforms to certain standards and specifications. Based on TQM, which focuses on quality cycles, we theorized that those process quality standards and specifications refer to conforming to the ordered sequence of four self-regulatory job search phases. Thus, synthesizing the job seeker-oriented, internal perspective on quality, the TQM principles, and self-regulation theory, we define job search process quality as the extent to which a job search is self-regulated, that is, the extent to which a job search is conducted by cycling through the four sequential self-regulatory phases of goal establishment, planning of the goal pursuit, goal striving, and reflection

Unwrapping the organizational entry process: Disentangling multiple antecedents and their pathways to adjustment

This 4-wave longitudinal study of newcomers in 7 organizations examined preentry knowledge, proactive personality, and socialization influences as antecedents of both proximal (task mastery, role clarity, work group integration, and political knowledge) and distal (organizational commitment, work withdrawal, and turnover) indicators of newcomer adjustment. Results suggest that preentry knowledge, proactive personality, and socialization influences from the organization, supervisors, and coworkers are independently related to proximal adjustment outcomes, consistent with a theoretical framework highlighting distinct dimensions of organizational and work task adjustment. The proximal adjustment outcomes partially mediated most of the relationships between the antecedents of adjustment and organizational commitment, work withdrawal, and turnover. The period of early entry is one of the most critical phases of organizational life. During this time newcomers determine what their new organization is like and decide whether they “fit in.” Many researchers have proposed that newcomers ’ initial attitudes strongly influence subsequent attitudes and behavior (e.g., Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982; Wanous, 1992). Evidence that wor

Ups and Downs of the Expatriate Experience? Understanding work adjustment trajectories and career outcomes

We examine changes in work adjustment among 179 expatriates from 3 multinational organizations from predeparture through the first 9 months of a new international assignment. Our 10-wave results challenge classic U-shaped theories of expatriate adjustment (e.g., Torbiorn, 1982). Consistent with uncertainty reduction theory, our results instead suggest that expatriates typically experience a gradual increase in work adjustment over time. Two resources that expatriates bring to their assignments (previous culture-specific work experience and core self-evaluations) moderate the trajectory of work adjustment. Trajectory of adjustment predicts Month 9 career instrumentality and turnover intention, as well as career advancement (job promotion) 1.5 years further. Implications for theory, as well as for changes in expatriate management practices, are discussed

Moving beyond job search quantity : towards a conceptualization and self-regulatory framework of job search quality

Job seeking is an important aspect throughout people’s careers. Extant theory and research has focused on one particular dimension of job search, that is, intensity/effort (i.e., job search quantity), posing that intensity/effort importantly affects employment success. The present conceptual paper extends job search theory by arguing for the importance of job search quality in explaining job search and employment success. We conceptualize job search quality as consisting of process quality and product/behavior quality, and propose that high-quality job search products/behaviors are more likely with a high-quality job search process. A four-phased cyclical self-regulatory model is presented, specifying the components of job search process quality. We build theory regarding the interrelations between quality components, the antecedents and outcomes of job search quality, and themoderators of these relations. This theory offers new andmore detailed explanations for previous findings, directions for future research, and practical guidelines regarding (re)employment success and services