A comparison between ultraviolet disinfection and copper alginate beads within a vortex bioreactor for the deactivation of bacteria in simulated waste streams with high levels of colour, humic acid and suspended solids.

We show in this study that the combination of a swirl flow reactor and an antimicrobial agent (in this case copper alginate beads) is a promising technique for the remediation of contaminated water in waste streams recalcitrant to UV-C treatment. This is demonstrated by comparing the viability of both common and UV-C resistant organisms in operating conditions where UV-C proves ineffective - notably high levels of solids and compounds which deflect UV-C. The swirl flow reactor is easy to construct from commonly available plumbing parts and may prove a versatile and powerful tool in waste water treatment in developing countries

Comparative study of enteric viruses, coliphages and indicator bacteria for evaluating water quality in a tropical high-altitude system

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Bacteria used as indicators for pathogenic microorganisms in water are not considered adequate as enteric virus indicators. Surface water from a tropical high-altitude system located in Mexico City that receives rainwater, treated and non-treated wastewater used for irrigation, and groundwater used for drinking, was studied.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The presence of enterovirus, rotavirus, astrovirus, coliphage, coliform bacteria, and enterococci was determined during annual cycles in 2001 and 2002. Enteric viruses in concentrated water samples were detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Coliphages were detected using the double agar layer method. Bacteria analyses of the water samples were carried out by membrane filtration.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The presence of viruses and bacteria in the water used for irrigation showed no relationship between current bacterial indicator detection and viral presence. Coliphages showed strong association with indicator bacteria and enterovirus, but weak association with other enteric viruses. Enterovirus and rotavirus showed significant seasonal differences in water used for irrigation, although this was not clear for astrovirus.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Coliphages proved to be adequate faecal pollution indicators for the irrigation water studied. Viral presence in this tropical high-altitude system showed a similar trend to data previously reported for temperate zones.</p

Threshold concentration of easily assimilable organic carbon in feedwater for biofouling of spiral-wound membranes

One of the major impediments in the application of spiral-wound membranes in water treatment or desatination is clogging of the feed channel by biofouling which is induced by nutrients in the feedwater. Organic carbon is, under most conditions, limiting the microbial growth. The objective of this study is to assess the relationship between the concentration of an easily assimilable organic compound such as acetate in the feedwater and the pressure drop increase in the feed channel. For this purpose the membrane fouling simulator (MFS) was used as a model for the feed channel of a spiral-wound membrane, This MFS unit was supplied with drinking water enriched with acetate at concentrations ranging from 1 to 1000 mu g C.L(-1). The pressure drop (PD) in the feed channel increased at all tested concentrations but not with the blank. The PD increase could be described by a first order process based on theoretical considerations concerning biofilm formation rate and porosity decline. The relationship between the first order fouling rate constant R(f) and the acetate concentration is described with a saturation function corresponding with the growth kinetics of bacteria. Under the applied conditions the maximum R(f) (0.555 d(-1)) was reached at 25 mu g acetate-C.L(-1) and the half saturation constant k(f) was estimated at 15 mu g acetateC.L(-1). This value is higher than k(s) values for suspended bacteria grown on acetate, which is attributed to substrate limited growth conditions in the biofilm. The threshold concentration for biofouling of the feed channel is about 1 mu g acetate-C.L(-1)

Calcium removal by softening of water affects biofilm formation on PVC, glass and membrane surfaces

Literature data on the effect of calcium on biofilm structures induced a preliminary study. The effect of calcium removal by water softening (< 1.0 mg Ca2+.L-1) under real-world drinking water conditions on biofilm formation was studied in a pilot plant with reverse osmosis (RO) membranes and in a laboratory-scale biofilm production unit (BPU) with plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC-P) and glass as substratum. The results showed a halving of the exponential biofouling rate in the RO membrane and also a halving of the exponential carbohydrate (CH) production rate in the biofilm on PVC-P and glass in the BPU by softening of the water. In PVC-P biofilms, softening did not affect adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) production and bacterial species composition (terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis). At low substrate concentrations in glass and RO membrane biofilms softening reduced significantly ATP and CH production and changed the species composition on the membrane. The importance of the two hypothesized physical or physiological mechanisms as causes for the observed Ca2+ effect on biofilm formation and the effect of Ca2+ concentration on those, needs further studies

Removal of microorganisms by slow sand filtration

Het RIVM heeft samen met Kiwa Research en de waterleidingbedrijven Duinwaterbedrijf Zuid-Holland en Waternet gemeten hoe goed ziekteverwekkende wateroverdraagbare micro-organismen worden verwijderd door langzame zandfiltratie, een veel toegepaste techniek in de drinkwaterbereiding. Ongeveer een op de honderd virussen, een op de tienduizend bacterien en minder dan een op de honderdduizend parasitaire protozoa komt nog door de zandfilters. Dit zijn belangrijke gegevens voor de wettelijk verplichte schattingen van risicos op infectie door ziekteverwekkende micro-organismen na drinkwaterconsumptie. Langzame zandfiltratie, een van de laatste stappen in de drinkwaterzuivering, zeeft micro-organismen uit het water. De micro-organismen blijven achter omdat ze niet door porien tussen de zandkorrels passen (zeving) of doordat ze aan zandkorrels hechten. De verwijdering van virussen en bacterien is onderzocht in proefinstallatiefilters, die van protozoa in het laboratorium met kleine zandkolommen. Uit het onderzoek blijkt dat voor bacterien en protozoa zeving effectiever is dan voor de veel kleinere virussen. De concentratie van de micro-organismen in het toegevoerde water is niet van invloed. Ook de effecten van temperatuur en Schmutzdecke zijn onderzocht. De Schmutzdecke is een slijmlaag, die zich langzaam vormt op het zandfilter. Als de Schmutzdecke het zandfilter teveel verstopt, wordt deze afgeschraapt. Bij 9 - 12 graden C heeft de Schmutzdecke geen effect op verwijdering van virussen, maar bacterien worden met Schmutzdecke honderd keer meer verwijderd dan zonder. Bij 14 - 15 graden C worden alle micro-organismen ongeveer tien keer meer verwijderd dan bij 9 - 12 graden C. Na afschrapen is de werking van de Schmutzdecke binnen 53 dagen hersteld. Tenslotte wijst het onderzoek uit dat het zand van de twee onderzochte waterleidingbedrijven nagenoeg even werkzaam is.The removal of waterborne microorganisms by slow sand filtration, regularly applied in Dutch drinking water production as one of the last treatments in drinking water production, was determined. About one per hundred viruses, one per ten thousand bacteria and less than one per hundred thousand parasitic protozoa pass the sand filters. These estimates for removal of pathogens by slow sand filtration constitute some of the critical parameters for the production of safe drinking water as determined by quantitative microbiological risk assessment required by Dutch law. By slow sand filtration, microorganisms are retained because they are not able to pass pores between the sand grains (straining), and by attachment to sand grains. Removal of viruses and bacteria was investigated in pilot plants and that of protozoa in the laboratory with small sand columns. Bacteria and protozoa (1 - 6 mu-m) are strained more effectively than the much smaller viruses (0.02 - 0.2 mu-m). The concentration of the microorganisms in the feeding water of the slow sand filters does not affect removal efficiency. Effects of temperature and the Schmutzdecke were also studied. The Schmutzdecke is a slime layer that gradually forms on top of the sand filter. In operation the Schmutzdecke is scraped off when it clogs the filter too much. At 9 - 12 degrees C, scraping does not affect virus removal, but bacteria are removed a hundred times more when a Schmutzdecke is present than when it is absent. At 14 - 16 degrees C, all microorganisms are removed ten times more than at 9 - 12 degrees C. After scraping off, the efficacy of the Schmutzdecke was restored within 53 days. Finally, it was found that the sand of the two drinking water companies was almost equally effective