British Land Policy and The American Revolution: A Belated Lecture in Economic History

If this were spoken from a pulpit instead of from a teacher\u27s rostrum, I should be disposed to take as a text for what follows a passage from C. W. Alvord\u27s study of The Mississippi Valley in British Politics. From the middle of the 18th century to the Revolution, how to deal with the great valley was, Alvord holds, the number one American problem of every British ministry: How to meet the claims of France to it and how to defend it once her claims were extinguished; how to meet the claims to it of the seaboard colonies by virtue of their charters; how to protect the Indian title to the soil and against the frauds and abuses of traders and settlers; and finally, how best to make it of the greatest advantage to the English economy. The conflicting claims of France and England to the territory were discussed at the close of King George\u27s War, 1744-1748, but neither side was prepared for a showdown and they were left unsettled by the treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle. A cold war ensued, each party seeking to strengthen its claim to the valley by occupation in one form or another, especially at the strategic Forks of the Ohio. The English got there firstest, but the French, counting guns, got there with the mostest, and the Virginians were driven back to the Atlantic side of the mountains. The cold war lasted seven years. Then followed seven years of bloody war, 1765-1763. We call it the French and Indian War, but it became a worldwide war. In the end France lost heavily in the Far East, in the West Indies, and on the North American continent. She surrendered Canada with its eighty or ninety thousand French population and her claims to the great region west of the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi River, except a small area at the mouth of the river held by Spain. How these vast acquisitions were to be managed was a problem full of difficulties. Very soon, however, it was decided to mark off East Florida and West Florida for the establishment of separate colonies, and the same was done for Canada though more than ten years passed before a colonial government was set up there. The great interior region west of the mountains, inhabited, save for a few French settlers in the Illinois country, only by scattered Indian tribes, was for the time being left an Imperial domain, without any commitment as to future colonial status. These decisions were announced in the Royal Proclamation on North America, October 7, 1763. Recognizing the Indian title to the soil, it declared all lands not hitherto purchased or ceded to the King a reservation for the use of the Indians until so acquired. It forbade the Colonial governors to presume to make grants of such lands or to purchase them until the King\u27s pleasure should be known. All private persons were, likewise, forbidden to make purchases of them or to occupy them except on special license first obtained; and if any had willfully or inadvertently seated themselves on lands the title to which had not been acquired by the Crown, they were enjoined forthwith to remove themselves from such settlements. The Indian trade, hitherto free, was also brought under imperial regulation. All traders were required to secure license from the colonial governor and give security to observe the regulations prescribed in them. By adopting a benevolent attitude toward the Indians, by placing the traders under strict regulation, by impliedly fixing western boundaries of the colonies at the mountains, by placing a sharp restriction upon westward expansion, the Proclamation reversed former British policy and ran counter to long-established colonial practices

執筆者紹介(執筆順)

1 mapa. Pintant. Toponímia en anglès. Datat al 1840 aproximadament.21 x 27 c

View of the Capitol at Washington

The the hand-colored steel engraving features an outdoor scene in front of the United States Capitol. In the foreground, carriages and groups of people are shown along a road leading to the Capitol. Various trees and buildings line the road. At the center of the background, the Capitol building is depicted. The engraving originally appeared in a publication by N.P. Willis\u27s American Scenery. This particular copy was enclosed in a wooden frame sealed with masking tape but was removed for preservation.https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/fvw-prints/1064/thumbnail.jp

The Valley of the Shenandoah, from Jeffersons Rock (Harper\u27s Ferry)

The black and white steel engraving depicts a scene from the Shenandoah River Valley. In the scene, three women and one man stand on rocky terrain that overlooks the Shenandoah River. Two goats are also pictured among the natural vegetation. A crescent moon hangs in the sky at the image\u27s upper left corner.https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/fvw-prints/1109/thumbnail.jp

The Valley of the Shenandoah, from Jeffersons Rock (Harper\u27s Ferry)

The black and white steel engraving depicts a scene from the Shenandoah River Valley. In the scene, three women and one man stand on rocky terrain that overlooks the Shenandoah River. Two goats are also pictured among the natural vegetation. A crescent moon hangs in the sky at the image\u27s upper left corner.https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/fvw-artifacts/1186/thumbnail.jp

GDF15 Provides an Endocrine Signal of Nutritional Stress in Mice and Humans.

GDF15 is an established biomarker of cellular stress. The fact that it signals via a specific hindbrain receptor, GFRAL, and that mice lacking GDF15 manifest diet-induced obesity suggest that GDF15 may play a physiological role in energy balance. We performed experiments in humans, mice, and cells to determine if and how nutritional perturbations modify GDF15 expression. Circulating GDF15 levels manifest very modest changes in response to moderate caloric surpluses or deficits in mice or humans, differentiating it from classical intestinally derived satiety hormones and leptin. However, GDF15 levels do increase following sustained high-fat feeding or dietary amino acid imbalance in mice. We demonstrate that GDF15 expression is regulated by the integrated stress response and is induced in selected tissues in mice in these settings. Finally, we show that pharmacological GDF15 administration to mice can trigger conditioned taste aversion, suggesting that GDF15 may induce an aversive response to nutritional stress.This work and authors were funded by the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre; NIHR Rare Disease Translational Research Collaboration; Medical Research Council [MC_UU_12012/2 and MRC_MC_UU_12012/3]; MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit [MRC_MC_UU_12012/5 and MRC_MC_UU_12012.1]; Wellcome Trust Strategic Award [100574/Z/12/Z and 100140]; Wellcome Trust [107064 , 095515/Z/11/Z , 098497/Z/12/Z, 106262/Z/14/Z and 106263/Z/14/Z]; British Heart Foundation [RG/12/13/29853]; Addenbrooke’s Charitable Trust / Evelyn Trust Cambridge Clinical Research Fellowship [16-69] US Department of Agriculture: 2010-34323-21052; EFSD project grant and a Royal College of Surgeons Research Fellowship, Diabetes UK Harry Keen intermediate clinical fellowship (17/0005712). European Research Council, Bernard Wolfe Health Neuroscience Endowment, Experimental Medicine Training Initiative/AstraZeneca and Medimmune

British Land Policy and The American Revolution: A Belated Lecture in Economic History

If this were spoken from a pulpit instead of from a teacher\u27s rostrum, I should be disposed to take as a text for what follows a passage from C. W. Alvord\u27s study of The Mississippi Valley in British Politics. From the middle of the 18th century to the Revolution, how to deal with the great valley was, Alvord holds, the number one American problem of every British ministry: How to meet the claims of France to it and how to defend it once her claims were extinguished; how to meet the claims to it of the seaboard colonies by virtue of their charters; how to protect the Indian title to the soil and against the frauds and abuses of traders and settlers; and finally, how best to make it of the greatest advantage to the English economy. The conflicting claims of France and England to the territory were discussed at the close of King George\u27s War, 1744-1748, but neither side was prepared for a showdown and they were left unsettled by the treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle. A cold war ensued, each party seeking to strengthen its claim to the valley by occupation in one form or another, especially at the strategic Forks of the Ohio. The English got there firstest, but the French, counting guns, got there with the mostest, and the Virginians were driven back to the Atlantic side of the mountains. The cold war lasted seven years. Then followed seven years of bloody war, 1765-1763. We call it the French and Indian War, but it became a worldwide war. In the end France lost heavily in the Far East, in the West Indies, and on the North American continent. She surrendered Canada with its eighty or ninety thousand French population and her claims to the great region west of the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi River, except a small area at the mouth of the river held by Spain. How these vast acquisitions were to be managed was a problem full of difficulties. Very soon, however, it was decided to mark off East Florida and West Florida for the establishment of separate colonies, and the same was done for Canada though more than ten years passed before a colonial government was set up there. The great interior region west of the mountains, inhabited, save for a few French settlers in the Illinois country, only by scattered Indian tribes, was for the time being left an Imperial domain, without any commitment as to future colonial status. These decisions were announced in the Royal Proclamation on North America, October 7, 1763. Recognizing the Indian title to the soil, it declared all lands not hitherto purchased or ceded to the King a reservation for the use of the Indians until so acquired. It forbade the Colonial governors to presume to make grants of such lands or to purchase them until the King\u27s pleasure should be known. All private persons were, likewise, forbidden to make purchases of them or to occupy them except on special license first obtained; and if any had willfully or inadvertently seated themselves on lands the title to which had not been acquired by the Crown, they were enjoined forthwith to remove themselves from such settlements. The Indian trade, hitherto free, was also brought under imperial regulation. All traders were required to secure license from the colonial governor and give security to observe the regulations prescribed in them. By adopting a benevolent attitude toward the Indians, by placing the traders under strict regulation, by impliedly fixing western boundaries of the colonies at the mountains, by placing a sharp restriction upon westward expansion, the Proclamation reversed former British policy and ran counter to long-established colonial practices

Spain and Portugal / George Virtue ; engraved by the omnigrah F.P. Becker

1 mapa. Pintat. Toponímia en anglès. Datat entre el 1840 i el 1849 aproximadament.21 x 27 c

Spain and Portugal / George Virtue ; engraved by the omnigrah F.P. Becker

1 mapa. Pintant. Toponímia en anglès. Datat al 1840 aproximadament.21 x 27 c