Socioeconomic and racial/ethnic differentials of C-reactive protein levels: a systematic review of population-based studies

Background:Socioeconomic and racial/ethnic factors strongly influence cardiovascular disease outcomes and risk factors. C-reactive protein (CRP), a non-specific marker of inflammation, is associated with cardiovascular risk, and knowledge about its distribution in the population may help direct preventive efforts. A systematic review was undertaken to critically assess CRP levels according to socioeconomic and racial/ethnic factors. Methods:Medline was searched through December 2006 for population-based studies examining CRP levels among adults with respect to indicators of socioeconomic position (SEP) and/or race/ethnicity. Bibliographies from located studies were scanned and 26 experts in the field were contacted for unpublished work. Results:Thirty-two relevant articles were located. Cross-sectional (n = 20) and cohort studies (n = 11) were included, as was the control group of one trial. CRP levels were examined with respect to SEP and race/ethnicity in 25 and 15 analyses, respectively. Of 20 studies that were unadjusted or adjusted for demographic variables, 19 found inverse associations between CRP levels and SEP. Of 15 similar studies, 14 found differences between racial/ethnic groups such that whites had the lowest while blacks, Hispanics and South Asians had the highest CRP levels. Most studies also included adjustment for potential mediating variables in the causal chain between SEP or race/ethnicity and CRP. Most of these studies showed attenuated but still significant associations. Conclusion: Increasing poverty and non-white race was associated with elevated CRP levels among adults. Most analyses in the literature are underestimating the true effects of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic factors due to adjustment for mediating factors

Iniqüidades sociais na saúde e nutrição de crianças em países de renda baixa e média

OBJECTIVE: To describe the effects of social inequities on the health and nutrition of children in low and middle income countries. METHODS: We reviewed existing data on socioeconomic disparities within-countries relative to the use of services, nutritional status, morbidity, and mortality. A conceptual framework including five major hierarchical categories affecting inequities was adopted: socioeconomic context and position, differential exposure, differential vulnerability, differential health outcomes, and differential consequences. The search of the PubMed database since 1990 identified 244 articles related to the theme. Results were also analyzed from almost 100 recent national surveys, including Demographic Health Surveys and the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. RESULTS: Children from poor families are more likely, relative to those from better-off families, to be exposed to pathogenic agents; once they are exposed, they are more likely to become ill because of their lower resistance and lower coverage with preventive interventions. Once they become ill, they are less likely to have access to health services and the quality of these services is likely to be lower, with less access to life-saving treatments. As a consequence, children from poor family have higher mortality rates and are more likely to be undernourished. CONCLUSIONS: Except for child obesity and inadequate breastfeeding practices, all the other adverse conditions analyzed were more prevalent in children from less well-off families. Careful documentation of the multiple levels of determination of socioeconomic inequities in child health is essential for understanding the nature of this problem and for establishing interventions that can reduce these differences.OBJETIVO: Describir el efecto de las iniquidades sociales sobre la nutrición y salud de niños de países de renta baja y media. MÉTODOS: Fueron revisadas informaciones disponibles sobre disparidades socioeconómicas intra-países, relativas al uso de servicios de salud, estado nutricional, morbilidad y mortalidad. Se adoptó un modelo conceptual con cinco categorías jerárquicas en la producción de inequidades: contexto y posición socioeconómica, diferencias en la exposición, en la vulnerabilidad, en los hechos de salud y en las consecuencias. En investigación realizada en la base PubMed, en el período de 1990-2007 fueron encontrados 244 artículos relacionados al tema. Fueron también analizados los resultados de cerca de 100 pesquisas de ámbito nacional recientes, incluyendo Pesquisas Nacionales de Demografía y Salud y Pesquisas por Conglomerados de Múltiples Indicadores, del Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia. RESULTADOS: Niños de familias pobres, en comparación con aquellas de familias más ricas, son más susceptibles a la exposición a agentes patogénicos; una vez expuestas, tienen un riesgo aumentado de enfermar, debido a su menor resistencia y menor cobertura de medidas preventivas. Una vez que se toman enfermos, tienen menor acceso a servicios de salud, la calidad de los servicios que logran utilizar tiende a ser inferior, con menor acceso a tratamientos médicos que garanticen su sobrevivencia. Como consecuencia, niños de familias más pobres presentan mayores tasas de mortalidad y mayor riesgo de ser subnutridas. CONCLUSIONES: Excepto obesidad infantil y prácticas inadecuadas de amamantamiento, todas las otras condiciones adversas analizadas tuvieron mayor prevalencia entre los niños de familias menos favorecidas. La documentación cuidadosa de los múltiples niveles de determinantes de las inequidades socioeconómicas en salud infantil es esencial para el entendimiento de la naturaleza del problema, y para el establecimiento de intervenciones que puedan reducir estas diferencias.OBJETIVO: Descrever o efeito das iniqüidades sociais sobre a nutrição e saúde de crianças de países de renda baixa e média. MÉTODOS: Foram revisadas informações disponíveis sobre disparidades socioeconômicas intra-países, relativas a uso de serviços de saúde, estado nutricional, morbidade e mortalidade. Adotou-se um modelo conceitual com cinco categorias hierárquicas na produção de iniqüidades: contexto e posição socioeconômica, diferenças na exposição, na vulnerabilidade, nos desfechos de saúde e nas conseqüências. Em pesquisa realizada na base PubMed, no período de 1990-2007 foram encontrados 244 artigos relacionados ao tema. Foram também analisados os resultados de cerca de 100 inquéritos de âmbito nacional recentes, incluindo Pesquisas Nacionais de Demografia e Saúde e Inquéritos por Conglomerados de Múltiplos Indicadores, do Fundo das Nações Unidas para a Infância. RESULTADOS: Crianças de famílias pobres, em comparação com aquelas de famílias mais ricas, são mais suscetíveis à exposição a agentes patogênicos; uma vez expostas, têm um risco aumentado de adoecer, devido à sua menor resistência e menor cobertura de medidas preventivas. Uma vez que se tornam doentes, têm menor acesso a serviços de saúde, a qualidade dos serviços que logram utilizar tende a ser inferior, com menor acesso a tratamentos médicos que garantam sua sobrevivência. Como conseqüência, crianças de famílias mais pobres apresentam maiores taxas de mortalidade e maior risco de serem subnutridas. CONCLUSÕES: Exceto obesidade infantil e práticas inadequadas de aleitamento materno, todas as outras condições adversas analisadas tiveram maior prevalência entre as crianças de famílias menos favorecidas. A documentação cuidadosa dos múltiplos níveis de determinantes das iniqüidades socioeconômicas em saúde infantil é essencial para o entendimento da natureza do problema, e para o estabelecimento de intervenções que possam reduzir estas diferenças

Publicações científicas e as relações Norte-Sul: racismo editorial?

The aim of the present study was to comment on the possible existence of editorial prejudice among the editors of scientific journals from Northern countries against Southern authors. We highlight that a study using bibliometric methods documented an important imbalance in terms of the international scientific production of health researchers from high-income countries (the "North") and those from low and middle-income countries (the "South"). In a survey of Brazilian researchers, three in every four blamed this imbalance, at least in part, on prejudice among international editors. This is supported by the fact that a very small percentage of editorial board members of international journals come from the South. Although prejudice can explain part of the imbalance, there are also specific measures that may increase the likelihood of a paper from the South being accepted in international journals. These include the need to invest in the quality of the written text, and to show empathy with editors and readers, emphasizing the contribution of the manuscript to the international literature. Finally, we discuss whether research carried out in the South should be published in national or international journals, and suggest that there are at least six dimensions to this choice. These include language and target audience; type of contribution to knowledge; generalizability; citation index; speed of publication; and open access. The rapid growth in the number of Brazilian contributions to the international health literature shows that editorial prejudice, although often present, can be effectively offset by research with solid methodology and good-quality presentation.O objetivo do estudo foi comentar a possível existência de preconceito editorial entre editores de revistas científicas de países do Norte contra autores do Sul. Destacou-se que em estudo por métodos bibliométricos ficou evidenciada a existência de um importante desequilíbrio entre a produção científica de pesquisadores de países de alta renda ("Norte") e daqueles trabalhando em instituições de países de renda média ou baixa ("Sul"). Há uma percepção generalizada entre autores brasileiros de que, em parte, isso seria devido a preconceito de editores de revistas internacionais contra autores do Sul - 75% de uma amostra de 244 autores que responderam a inquérito acreditam que exista preconceito. Essa impressão é reforçada pela observação de uma minoria dos membros de conselhos editoriais das principais revistas na área de saúde proveniente do Sul. Embora o preconceito possa explicar parte do problema, há também questões especificas e remediáveis que podem aumentar a probabilidade de publicar no exterior. Essas incluem investir na qualidade do texto e da redação, e mostrar empatia com editores e leitores, sinalizando claramente a contribuição que o artigo pode trazer para a literatura internacional. Finalmente, é abordada a questão de onde publicar: em periódicos nacionais ou internacionais. Foram propostos seis tópicos que devem ser levados em conta nessa opção: idioma e público-alvo; tipo de contribuição ao conhecimento; capacidade de generalização; índice de citações; velocidade de publicação; e acesso livre. O aumento rápido de publicações brasileiras em periódicos internacionais mostra que o preconceito editorial, embora existente, pode ser efetivamente vencido por trabalhos com metodologia sólida e apresentação de qualidade

Indicador econômico para o Brasil baseado no censo demográfico de 2000

OBJECTIVE: To propose an asset based indicator of wealth for Brazil using variables present in the demographic census. METHODS: The indicator, named IEN (Indicador Econômico Nacional/ National Wealth Score), was developed using 12 assets and the schooling of the household head, through principal component analysis. Data from the 2000 Brazilian Demographic sample was used for deriving the score and for the calculation of decile cut-off points. RESULTS: The indicator, first component obtained from the analysis with the 13 variables, retained 38% of the total variability, and presented a Spearman correlation of 0,74 with total family income and of 0,67with per capita income. The necessary scores to calculate the indicator are presented, as well as reference distributions for the 27 states and their capitals, the five major regions as for the whole country. An example of use of indicator is presented. CONCLUSIONS: Differently from other economic indicators, the Indicador Econômico Nacional has local reference distributions available, along with the national distribution. It is therefore possible to compare a study sample to the municipal, state or country distribution. The small number of variables allow investigators to calculate the Indicador Econômico Nacional in research studies where economic classification is of interest.OBJETIVO: Propor um indicador econômico para o Brasil baseado em bens de consumo usando variáveis presentes no censo demográfico de 2000. MÉTODOS: O indicador, denominado Indicador Econômico Nacional (IEN), foi desenvolvido a partir de 12 bens e a escolaridade do chefe de família, por meio de análise de componentes principais. Dados da amostra do Censo Demográfico Brasileiro de 2000, realizado pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, foram usados para gerar o indicador e para o cálculo dos pontos de corte dos decis de referência. RESULTADOS: O indicador, primeiro componente obtido da análise, reteve 38% da variabilidade total e apresentou correlação de Spearman de 0,74 com a renda total do domicílio e de 0,67 com a renda per capita. Os coeficientes necessários para calcular o indicador são apresentados, assim como as distribuições de referência para 27 capitais e Estados, as cinco regiões e o País. Apresenta-se um exemplo de como se usa o indicador. CONCLUSÕES: Diferentemente de outros indicadores econômicos disponíveis, o IEN tem as distribuições de referência publicadas, para capitais, Estados, Regiões, bem como a distribuição nacional. Torna-se possível, portanto, comparar a amostra estudada à distribuição municipal, estadual ou nacional. O número reduzido de variáveis torna fácil o cálculo do Indicador Econômico Nacional para investigadores envolvidos em pesquisas onde é importante a classificação econômica

Socioeconomic inequalities in skilled birth attendance and child stunting in selected low and middle income countries: Wealth quintiles or deciles?

BACKGROUND: Wealth quintiles derived from household asset indices are routinely used for measuring socioeconomic inequalities in the health of women and children in low and middle-income countries. We explore whether the use of wealth deciles rather than quintiles may be advantageous. METHODS: We selected 46 countries with available national surveys carried out between 2003 and 2013 and with a sample size of at least 3000 children. The outcomes were prevalence of under-five stunting and delivery by a skilled birth attendant (SBA). Differences and ratios between extreme groups for deciles (D1 and D10) and quintiles (Q1 and Q5) were calculated, as well as two summary measures: the slope index of inequality (SII) and concentration index (CIX). RESULTS: In virtually all countries, stunting prevalence was highest among the poor, and there were larger differences between D1 and D10 than between Q1 and Q5. SBA coverage showed pro-rich patterns in all countries; in four countries the gap was greater than 80 pct points. With one exception, differences between extreme deciles were larger than between quintiles. Similar patterns emerged when using ratios instead of differences. The two summary measures provide very similar results for quintiles and deciles. Patterns of top or bottom inequality varied with national coverage levels. CONCLUSION: Researchers and policymakers should consider breakdowns by wealth deciles, when sample sizes allow. Use of deciles may contribute to advocacy efforts, monitoring inequalities over time, and targeting health interventions. Summary indices of inequalities were unaffected by the use of quintiles or deciles in their calculation

Global report on preterm birth and stillbirth (7 of 7): mobilizing resources to accelerate innovative solutions (Global Action Agenda)

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Preterm birth and stillbirth are complex local and global health problems requiring an interdisciplinary approach and an international commitment. Stakeholders developed recommendations for a Global Action Agenda (GAA) at the 2009 International Conference on Prematurity and Stillbirth. The primary goal of this GAA is to forge a collaborative effort toward achieving common goals to prevent preterm birth and stillbirth, and to improve related maternal, newborn, and child health outcomes.</p> <p>Conference participants</p> <p>GAPPS co-convened this four-day conference with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, March of Dimes, PATH, Save the Children, UNICEF and the World Health Organization. Participants included about 200 leading international researchers, policymakers, health care practitioners and philanthropists. A near-final draft of this report was sent three weeks in advance to help co-chairs and participants prepare for workgroup discussions.</p> <p>Global Action Agenda</p> <p>Twelve thematic workgroups, composed of interdisciplinary experts, made recommendations on short-, intermediate-, and long-term milestones, and success metrics. Recommendations are based on the following themes: (1) advance discovery of the magnitude, causes and innovative solutions; (2) promote development and delivery of low-cost, proven interventions; (3) improve advocacy efforts to increase awareness that preterm birth and stillbirth are leading contributors to the global health burden; (4) increase resources for research and implementation; and (5) consider ethical and social justice implications throughout all efforts.</p> <p>Summary</p> <p>The conference provided an unprecedented opportunity for maternal, newborn and child health stakeholders to create a collaborative strategy for addressing preterm birth and stillbirth globally. Participants and others have already completed or launched work on key milestones identified in the GAA. Updates will be provided at www.gapps.org.</p

Life expectancy and mortality in 363 cities of Latin America

The significant challenges to equity in health in the Region of the Americas, as detailed in the report of the Pan American Health Organization Independent Commission on Equity and Health Inequalities in the Americas, gave original impetus to this Special Issue on Equity in Health by the Pan American Journal of Public Health. The report, Just Societies: Health Equity and Dignified Lives, analyzed a vast body of evidence that indicated the overwhelming inequalities in the Region that relate to three factors: structural drivers, conditions of daily life, and governance for health equity (taking action). Highlighting the continued realities of the interrelationship between social and health inequities in the Americas is by no means new. However, since early 2020 this interrelationship has been further exposed and exacerbated by the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, which is testing governments, communities, economies, and individuals in ways previously unimagined in their scope and intensity. The crisis is exposing underlying inequalities in health and the cost of inaction to address this long-standing social injustice, and the COVID-19 response is even reversing improvements in social and health indicators made in the last two decades