7 research outputs found
Essentiality of the glnA gene in Haloferax mediterranei: gene conversion and transcriptional analysis
Glutamine synthetase is an essential enzyme in ammonium assimilation and glutamine biosynthesis. The Haloferax mediterranei genome has two other glnA-type genes (glnA2 and glnA3) in addition to the glutamine synthetase gene glnA. To determine whether the glnA2 and glnA3 genes can replace glnA in nitrogen metabolism, we generated deletion mutants of glnA. The glnA deletion mutants could not be generated in a medium without glutamine, and thus, glnA is an essential gene in H. mediterranei. The glnA deletion mutant was achieved by adding 40 mM glutamine to the selective medium. This conditional HM26-螖glnA mutant was characterised with different approaches in the presence of distinct nitrogen sources and nitrogen starvation. Transcriptomic analysis was performed to compare the expression profiles of the strains HM26-螖glnA and HM26 under different growth conditions. The glnA deletion did not affect the expression of glnA2, glnA3 and nitrogen assimilation genes under nitrogen starvation. Moreover, the results showed that glnA, glnA2 and glnA3 were not expressed under the same conditions. These results indicated that glnA is an essential gene for H. mediterranei and, therefore, glnA2 and glnA3 cannot replace glnA in the conditions analysed.This work was funded by MICINN Grant Number BIO2013-42921P (to MJB), Generalitat Valenciana Grant Number ACIF/2018/200 (to GP) and Universidad de Alicante (VIGROB-016)
Amylolytic Activities Excreted by the Halophilic Archaeon Haloferax mediterranei to Assimilate Available Starch Depend on the Nitrogen Source
Several amylolytic activities have been isolated from a controlled growing media containing starch and nitrate or ammonium acetate as a carbon and energy source, excreted by the halophilic archaeon Haloferax mediterranei. These enzymes produced in nitrate-containing medium were different from those produced by the organism when cultured in ammonium acetate-containing medium. Haloferax mediterranei was able to grow optimally in both the media but not in a medium with ammonium chloride and starch as exclusive source of nitrogen and carbon, respectively. Growth was significantly lower when nitrate was replaced by ammonium, although there was significant amylolytic activity in the medium. At least six different activities were obtained in the nitrate-containing medium, but only five for the ammonium containing one. These enzymes displayed a different affinity for starch as a chromatographic matrix, when eluted with maltose in a range from 0.02 M to 0.2 M, and differed in their kinetic parameters for starch as a substrate. The average medium length of the products obtained from cracking starch was different for each amylolytic activity, ranging from glucose to larger polysaccharides. Moreover, they exhibited different molecular masses, from 15 to 80 kDa. On the other hand, all of them behaved as typical halophilic enzymes, requiring high salt concentrations from 2M to 4M NaCl for stability and activity. Also, it exhibited an optimal pH ranged from 7 to 8 and showed certain thermophilic behaviour, with maximal activity within 50掳C to 60掳C. The study of the presence and behaviour of this set of starch degrading enzymes will allow for a better understanding of how halophilic organism obtain the adequate carbohydrates to be incorporated and optimally used.This work was supported by project BIO2013-42921-P from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness
Glutamina sintetasas recombinantes de Haloferax mediterranei
Haloferax mediterranei es un microorganismo hal贸filo extremo que se incluye dentro del Dominio Archaea. Es capaz de crecer utilizando carbohidratos, 谩cidos carbox铆licos, alcoholes y amino谩cidos como fuentes de carbono y energ铆a. Adem谩s, puede crecer en medio definido en presencia de glucosa como 煤nica fuente de carbono, y con nitrato o nitrito como 煤nica fuente de nitr贸geno a trav茅s de la v铆a de asimilaci贸n utilizando las nitrato y nitrito reductasas asimilativas. El nitrato lo utiliza reduci茅ndolo a amonio, el cual es incorporado a esqueletos carbonados v铆a glutamato deshidrogenasa (GDH) en condiciones de exceso de nitr贸geno o mediante la ruta glutamina sintetasaglutamato sintasa (GS-GOGAT) bajo condiciones de deficiencia de nitr贸geno. La glutamina sintetasa (GS; EC 6.3.1.2) se encuentra en todos los Dominios, que participa en la asimilaci贸n del amonio y en la bios铆ntesis de glutamina, actuando como donador de nitr贸geno para la s铆ntesis de prote铆nas y de 谩cidos nucleicos. Esta enzima cataliza la bios铆ntesis de glutamina mediante la reacci贸n biosint茅tica dependiente de magnesio o manganeso, a partir de glutamato, ATP y amonio. En el genoma de Hfx. mediterranei se localizaron tres genes que presentaron homolog铆a con glutamina sintetasa, en base a la presencia de tres dominios conservados (COG0174: transporte y metabolismo de amino谩cidos; pfam00120: dominio catal铆tico y pfam03951: dominio beta-Grasp) que se utilizan para identificar a las GSs. Tambi茅n se observ贸 que uno de los genes mantiene conservadas las tres secuencias consenso caracter铆sticas de GSs (glnA), mientras que los otros dos genes (glnA-2 y glnA-3) contienen parcialmente conservada una de ellas. Con el objetivo de conocer qu茅 funciones desempe帽an estas tres prote铆nas en la asimilaci贸n del nitr贸geno, y si concretamente glnA-2 y glnA-3 ejercen un papel importante en este proceso, cada una de las tres prote铆nas halof铆licas se clon贸 y expres贸 heter贸logamente en la cepa BL21 (DE3) de E. coli, utilizando el vector de expresi贸n pET3a, obteni茅ndose las prote铆nas en forma de cuerpos de inclusi贸n. Cada una de estas fracciones s贸lidas se solubilizaron utilizando urea 8 M, y posteriormente se diluyeron en un tamp贸n conteniendo NaCl 2 M y DTT 5 mM para conseguir su renaturalizaci贸n. Posteriormente, se llev贸 a cabo la purificaci贸n de cada una por separado mediante una 煤nica etapa a trav茅s de una cromatograf铆a en DEAE-celulosa; obteni茅ndose puras cada una de las prote铆nas y concentradas de forma r谩pida y con un buen rendimiento. La caracterizaci贸n de la GS (GlnA) recombinante indic贸 que se trataba de una enzima dependiente de metales cati贸nicos divalentes, regulada por los efectores 2-oxoglutarato y glutamina. La prote铆na fue activada por 2-oxoglutarato e inhibida por glutamina. Mediante la t茅cnica de velocidad de sedimentaci贸n se determin贸 que su estructura oligom茅rica consist铆a en 12 subunidades y se clasific贸 como GS tipo I, incluida en la subdivisi贸n 伪. Se generaron mutantes de deleci贸n de glnA y glnA-3 en Hfx. mediterranei mediante la t茅cnica pop-in pop-out, que permiti贸 la sustituci贸n de una secuencia concreta del genoma por otra modificada in vitro. Para la obtenci贸n de los mutantes se utiliz贸 la cepa HM26 (螖pyrE2) de Hfx. mediterranei. Primeramente, se construy贸 un cassette de deleci贸n para la obtenci贸n de un producto de fusi贸n de 1000 pb (versi贸n incompleta del gen) que se clon贸 en el vector pMH101N, conteniendo una copia del gen pyrE2, el cual se utiliz贸 como marcador gen茅tico. Los mutantes pop-in se seleccionaron en un medio carente de uracilo, ya que s贸lo las c茅lulas que codificaron el gen pyrE2, presente en el pl谩smidos suicida, pudieron sintetizar de novo dicho compuesto y crecer. Posteriormente, el pl谩smido suicida se perdi贸 y junto con 茅l una de las copias del gen, delecionada u original (mutante pop-out). Finalmente se obtuvieron los mutantes de deleci贸n para los genes glnA y glnA-3, de los cuales glnA result贸 ser un gen esencial en la asimilaci贸n de amonio y en la s铆ntesis de glutamina, puesto que aquellos mutantes que presentaron la deleci贸n de glnA fueron incapaces de crecer en un medio definido carente de glutamina; se trat贸 por tanto de mutantes aux贸trofos para este amino谩cido, que 煤nicamente crecieron al adicionar glutamina en el medio de cultivo. Finalmente, para conocer el efecto que produce la fuente de nitr贸geno sobre la expresi贸n global de los genes en Hfx. mediterranei, se realiz贸 un array de expresi贸n de la cepa R4 (silvestre) y se determin贸 la expresi贸n global de genes en tres medios de cultivo con diferentes fuentes de nitr贸geno: cultivo con amonio como fuente de nitr贸geno en fase estacionaria y exponencial de crecimiento, cultivo con nitrato en mitad de fase exponencial de crecimiento y cultivos con carencia de nitr贸geno. Las principales diferencias en expresi贸n de genes se detectaron en los medios de nitrato y carencia de nitr贸geno con respecto a amonio, los resultados sugirieron que la ausencia de amonio fue el factor responsable para la expresi贸n de genes implicados en la ruta de asimilaci贸n de nitrato. Concretamente, en carencia de nitr贸geno la GS mostr贸 una mayor expresi贸n que en medio con amonio. Para analizar los cambios de expresi贸n en los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 se realiz贸 un nuevo array de expresi贸n de la cepa HM26-A (螖pyrE2 螖glnA) utilizando como control la cepa parental HM26 (螖pyrE2). Se determin贸 la expresi贸n en dos medios de cultivo, en medio complejo suplementado con glutamina 40 mM en mitad de fase exponencial de crecimiento y en medio con carencia en nitr贸geno. Tanto en la cepa HM26-A con carencia en nitr贸geno como en la cepa parental HM26 se detectaron cambios de expresi贸n en los genes relacionados con la v铆a asimilativa del metabolismo del nitr贸geno de esta arquea hal贸fila. En la cepa HM26 en carencia de nitr贸geno con respecto a medio complejo con gln 40 mM se mostr贸 una menor expresi贸n de los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 y una sobreexpresi贸n de glnA. Mientras que en la cepa HM26-A en medio complejo con glutamina frente a la cepa HM26 en medio complejo en carencia de nitr贸geno, al delecionar glnA, los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 mostraron un incremento de expresi贸n.que en la cepa HM26-A en medio complejo con glutamina frente a la cepa HM26 en medio complejo en carencia de nitr贸geno, al delecionar glnA, los genes glnA-2 y glnA-3 mostraron un incremento de expresi贸n. En conclusi贸n, la glutamina sintetasa de Hfx. mediterranei es una enzima de tipo GSI-伪, dodecam茅rica, resultando ser una prote铆na esencial en la asimilaci贸n de amonio y en la s铆ntesis de glutamina; siendo activa en condiciones de deficiencia de nitr贸geno, a diferencia de las isoformas GlnA-2 y GlnA-3 que podr铆an ejercer un papel regulador de GlnA y posiblemente act煤en en la c茅lula en condiciones de abundancia de nitr贸geno
The management of the domestic refrigeration: Microbiological status and temperature
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to provide information on the consumer management of refrigerated food, establish the level and the incidence of bacterial contamination and operating temperatures in domestic refrigerators from north and centre Italy. Design/methodology/approach: A questionnaire was designed involving 24 questions which covered three topics: the socio-demographic data, the domestic management of refrigerated food and general information about the refrigerator. The questionnaire responses were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis and further processed with the multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) and cluster analysis (CA). Based on MCA and CA, 84 refrigerators were selected to assess the temperature and the microbiological status (total viable counts (TVC); Enterobacteriaceae total counts (ETC); Salmonella spp. and Listeria spp.). Findings: Totally, 660 interviews were carried out. The majority of respondents were female (81.4 per cent) and were married (71.4 per cent). Almost an half of them were between 31 and 50 years old (48.2 per cent) and had a secondary school degree (47 per cent). Regarding domestic management of refrigerated food, the majority of respondents (87.2 per cent) were aware of the correct temperature range (1-5掳C) for retail refrigerator units, but only 18 per cent of them check the temperature. Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. were not recovered; Listeria innocua was recovered (2.4 per cent). Regarding the TVC values, the 21.5 per cent of the tested refrigerators were classified as insufficient (from 100 to 104 cfu/cm2) or inadequate (>104 cfu/cm2). Consumer education should be focused in order to reduce foodborne disease. Only safety-conscious consumers can become active partners within the food safety chain. Originality/value: Result obtained from the present survey revealed that consumers are not familiar with their role in the food safety chain and that they allow numerous opportunities for microbiological contamination of food. The study clearly indicates the need for greater consumer education regarding proper domestic refrigerator management. Indeed, appropriate behaviours could make the refrigerator less likely to act as a significant niche for persistence and dissemination of food pathogens. 漏 Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Transcriptional profiles of Haloferax mediterranei based on nitrogen availability
The haloarchaeon Haloferax mediterranei is able to grow in the presence of different inorganic and organic nitrogen sources by means of the assimilatory pathway under aerobic conditions. In order to identify genes of potential importance in nitrogen metabolism and its regulation in the halophilic microorganism, we have analysed its global gene expression in three culture media with different nitrogen sources: (a) cells were grown stationary and exponentially in ammonium, (b) cells were grown exponentially in nitrate, and (c) cells were shifted to nitrogen starvation conditions. The main differences in the transcriptional profiles have been identified between the cultures with ammonium as nitrogen source and the cultures with nitrate or nitrogen starvation, supporting previous results which indicate the absence of ammonium as the factor responsible for the expression of genes involved in nitrate assimilation pathway. The results have also permitted the identification of transcriptional regulators and changes in metabolic pathways related to the catabolism and anabolism of amino acids or nucleotides. The microarray data was validated by real-time quantitative PCR on 4 selected genes involved in nitrogen metabolism. This work represents the first transcriptional profiles study related to nitrogen assimilation metabolism in extreme halophilic microorganisms using microarray technology.This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN, Grant BIO2008-00082), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity (MINECO, Grant BIO2013-42921-P) and by project AEST/2013/062 from the Generalitat Valenciana (Spain)