Application of a Household-Based Molecular Xenomonitoring Strategy to Evaluate the Lymphatic Filariasis Elimination Program in Tamil Nadu, India

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is one of the world’s foremost debilitating infectious diseases with nearly 800 million people at risk of infection. Given that LF is a mosquito-borne disease, the use of molecular xenomonitoring (MX) to detect parasite DNA/RNA in mosquitoes can serve as a valuable tool for LF monitoring and evaluation, particularly in Culexvector areas. We investigated using MX in a low-level prevalence district of Tamil Nadu, India by applying a household-based sampling strategy to determine trap location sites. Two independent mosquito samples were collected in each of a higher human infection hotspot area (sites with community microfilaria prevalence �1%) and across a larger evaluation area that also encompassed the hotspots. Pooled results showed mostly reproducible outcomes in both settings and a significant higher pool positivity in the hotspot area. A follow-up survey conducted two years later reconfirmed these findings while also showing a reduction in pool positivity and estimated prevalence of infection in mosquitoes in both settings. The utilization of a household-based sampling strategy for MX proved effective and should be further validated in wider epidemiological settings

Optimisation of an asymmetric polymerase chain reaction assay for the amplification of single-stranded DNA from Wuchereria bancrofti for electrochemical detection

Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is a prerequisite for electrochemical sensor-based detection of parasite DNA and other diagnostic applications. To achieve this detection, an asymmetric polymerase chain reaction method was optimised. This method facilitates amplification of ssDNA from the human lymphatic filarial parasite Wuchereria bancrofti. This procedure produced ssDNA fragments of 188 bp in a single step when primer pairs (forward and reverse) were used at a 100:1 molar ratio in the presence of double-stranded template DNA. The ssDNA thus produced was suitable for immobilisation as probe onto the surface of an Indium tin oxide electrode and hybridisation in a system for sequence-specific electrochemical detection of W. bancrofti. The hybridisation of the ssDNA probe and target ssDNA led to considerable decreases in both the anodic and the cathodic currents of the system's redox couple compared with the unhybridised DNA and could be detected via cyclic voltammetry. This method is reproducible and avoids many of the difficulties encountered by conventional methods of filarial parasite DNA detection; thus, it has potential in xenomonitoring

Molecular xenomonitoring of diurnally subperiodic Wuchereria bancrofti infection in Aedes (Downsiomyia) niveus (Ludlow, 1903) after nine rounds of Mass Drug Administration in Nancowry Islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

A group of four human inhabited Nancowry Islands in Nicobar district in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India having a population of 7674 is the lone focus of diurnally sub-periodic Wuchereria bancrofti (DspWB) that is transmitted by Aedes niveus (Ludlow). Microfilaria (Mf) prevalence was above 1% even after nine rounds of Mass Drug Administration (MDA) with DEC and albendazole. Molecular xenomonitoring (MX) was conducted to identify appropriate vector sampling method and assess the impact. BioGents Sentinel traps, gravid traps and human baited double bed nettraps were used in three locations in each village to collect Aedes niveus female mosquitoes. Subsequently daytime man landing collections (MLC) were carried out in all the 25 villages in the islands. Collections were compared in terms of the number of vector mosquitoes captured per trap collection. Females of Ae. niveus were pooled, dried and processed for detecting filarial parasite DNA using RT-PCR assay. Vector infection rate was estimated using PoolScreen software. Only 393 female mosquitoes including 44 Ae. niveus (11.2%) were collected from 459 trap collections using three trapping devices. From 151 MLCs, 2170 Ae. niveus female mosquitoes were collected. The average prevalence of W. bancrofti DNA was 0.43%. Estimated upper 95% CI exceeded the provisional prevalence threshold of 0.1% in all the villages, indicating continued transmission as observed in Mf survey. MLCs could be the choice, for now, to sample Ae. niveus mosquitoes. The PCR assay used in MX for nocturnally periodic bancroftian filariasis could be adopted for DspWB. The vector-parasite MX, can be used to evaluate interventions in this area after further standardization of the protocol

Molecular xenomonitoring as a post-MDA surveillance tool for global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis: Field validation in an evaluation unit in India.

BACKGROUND:Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is targeted for elimination by the year 2020. As of 2017, 67 of the 72 endemic countries have implemented annual Mass Drug Administration (MDA) for interrupting LF transmission. Transmission Assessment Survey (TAS) is the recommended protocol to evaluate the impact of MDA and to decide when to stop MDA in an Evaluation Unit (EU, population ≤2 million). As the human infection levels go down with repeated MDA rounds, it becomes a challenge to select the appropriate survey methods to assess transmission interruption. This study validates a standard protocol for molecular xenomonitoring of infection in vectors (MX) at an EU as a complementary tool for TAS to stop MDA and its utility for post-MDA or post-validation surveillance. METHODOLOGY:The study was conducted in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, India, which was found eligible for TAS after 15 annual rounds of MDA (4 with DEC alone and 11 with DEC plus albendazole). The district was divided into two EUs as per the TAS protocol and one EU was randomly selected for the study. A two-stage cluster design vector sampling, developed and validated at a sub-district level, was implemented in 30 randomly selected clusters in the EU. Female Culex quinquefasciatus were collected placing gravid traps overnight (1800-0600 hrs) inside the premises of systematically selected households. Pools of 20-25 blood-fed, semi-gravid and gravid Cx. quinquefasciatus were subjected to real-time quantitative PCR (polymerase chain reaction) assay for detecting Wuchereria bancrofti DNA. Pool infection rate (% of pools positive for W. bancrofti DNA), and the estimated prevalence of W. bancrofti DNA in mosquitoes and its 95% confidence interval were calculated. Additionally, in these 30 clusters, microfilaria (Mf) survey among individuals >5 years old was carried out. School-based TAS was conducted using Immunochromatographic Card Test (ICT) in the EU. Prepared itemized cost-menu for different cost components of MX survey and TAS were estimated and compared. RESULTS:MX survey showed that only 11 (3.1%) of the 358 pools (8850 Cx.quinquefasciatus females), collected from 30 clusters, were found positive for W. bancrofti DNA. The estimated vector infection rate was 0.13% (95% CI: 0.07-0.22%), below the provisional threshold (0.25%) for transmission interruption. Of 1578 children tested in the TAS, only four (0.25%) were positive for filarial antigenemia, and it is well below the critical cut-off (18 positives) for stopping MDA. Among 9804 persons tested in the 30 clusters, only four were found positive for Mf (0.04%; 95% CI: 0.01-0.1%). The Mf-prevalence was <1% threshold for transmission interruption in humans. The estimated costs for TAS and MX per EU were $14,104 USD and$14,259 USD respectively. CONCLUSIONS:The result of MX protocol was in good agreement with that of TAS, providing evidence to recommend MX as a complementary tool to TAS to decide on stopping MDA. MX can also be a potential surveillance tool for post-MDA and post-validation phases as it could detect sites with residual infection and risk of resurgence of transmission. MX is economically feasible as its cost is slightly higher than that of TAS

Map of positive and negative pools by household location in the PHC evaluation unit, 2010 and 2012.

<p>Map of positive and negative pools by household location in the PHC evaluation unit, 2010 and 2012.</p

Pool positivity and estimated prevalence of filarial DNA in the PHC EU, 2010 and 2012.

<p>Pool positivity and estimated prevalence of filarial DNA in the PHC EU, 2010 and 2012.</p

Map of study area, hotspot evaluation unit sites, and PHC evaluation unit sites.

<p>Map of study area, hotspot evaluation unit sites, and PHC evaluation unit sites.</p

Pool positivity and estimated prevalence of filarial DNA in the hotspot EU, 2010 and 2012.

<p>Pool positivity and estimated prevalence of filarial DNA in the hotspot EU, 2010 and 2012.</p