Assessing the environmental characteristics of cycling routes to school : a study on the reliability and validity of a Google Street View-based audit

Background: Google Street View provides a valuable and efficient alternative to observe the physical environment compared to on-site fieldwork. However, studies on the use, reliability and validity of Google Street View in a cycling-to-school context are lacking. We aimed to study the intra-, inter-rater reliability and criterion validity of EGA-Cycling (Environmental Google Street View Based Audit - Cycling to school), a newly developed audit using Google Street View to assess the physical environment along cycling routes to school. Methods: Parents (n = 52) of 11-to-12-year old Flemish children, who mostly cycled to school, completed a questionnaire and identified their child's cycling route to school on a street map. Fifty cycling routes of 11-to-12-year olds were identified and physical environmental characteristics along the identified routes were rated with EGA-Cycling (5 subscales; 37 items), based on Google Street View. To assess reliability, two researchers performed the audit. Criterion validity of the audit was examined by comparing the ratings based on Google Street View with ratings through on-site assessments. Results: Intra-rater reliability was high (kappa range 0.47-1.00). Large variations in the inter-rater reliability (kappa range -0.03-1.00) and criterion validity scores (kappa range -0.06-1.00) were reported, with acceptable inter-rater reliability values for 43% of all items and acceptable criterion validity for 54% of all items. Conclusions: EGA-Cycling can be used to assess physical environmental characteristics along cycling routes to school. However, to assess the micro-environment specifically related to cycling, on-site assessments have to be added

Cross-continental comparison of the association between the physical environment and active transportation in children : a systematic review

Background: The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the relationship between a wide range of physical environmental characteristics and different contexts of active transportation in 6- to 12-year-old children across different continents. Methods: A systematic search was conducted in six databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, Cinahl, SportDiscus, TRIS and Cochrane) resulting in 65 papers, eligible for inclusion. The investigated physical environmental variables were grouped into six categories: walkability, accessibility, walk/cycle facilities, aesthetics, safety, recreation facilities. Results: The majority of the studies were conducted in North America (n = 35), Europe (n = 17) and Australia (n = 11). Active transportation to school (walking or cycling) was positively associated with walkability. Walking to school was positively associated with walkability, density and accessibility. Evidence for a possible association was found for traffic safety and all forms of active transportation to school. No convincing evidence was found for associations between the physical environment and active transportation during leisure. General safety and traffic safety were associated with active transportation to school in North America and Australia but not associated with active transportation to school in Europe. Conclusions: The physical environment was mainly associated with active transportation to school. Continent specific associations were found, indicating that safety measures were most important in relation to active commuting to school in North America and Australia. There is a need for longitudinal studies and studies conducted in Asia, Africa and South-America and studies focusing specifically on active transportation during leisure

Feasibility and effectiveness of drop-off spots to promote walking to school

Background: Drop-off spots are locations in the proximity of primary schools where parents can drop off or pick up their child. From these drop-off spots children can walk to and from school. This pilot study aimed to investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of drop-off spots and to evaluate how drop-off spots are perceived by school principals, teachers and parents of 6-to-12-year old children. Methods: First, a feasibility questionnaire was completed (n = 216) to obtain parental opinions towards the implementation of drop-off spots. A drop-off spot was organized (500-800 m distance from school) in two primary schools. A within-subject design was used to compare children's (n = 58) step counts and number of walking trips during usual conditions (baseline) and during implementation of a drop-off spot (intervention). Three-level (class-participant- condition) linear regression models were used to determine intervention effects. After the intervention, 2 school principals, 7 teachers and 44 parents filled out a process evaluation questionnaire. Results: Prior to the intervention, 96% expressed the need for adult supervision during the route to school. Positive significant intervention effects were found for step counts before/after school hours (+732 step counts/day; X-2 = 12.2; p < 0.001) and number of walking trips to/from school (+2 trips/week; X-2 = 52.9; p < 0.001). No intervention effect was found for total step counts/day (X-2 = 2.0; p = 0.16). The intervention was positively perceived by the school principals and parents, but teachers expressed doubts regarding future implementation. Conclusion: This pilot study showed that implementing drop-off spots might be an effective intervention to promote children's walking to school. Implementing drop-off spots does not require major efforts from the schools and schools can choose how and when they organize drop-off spots. However, motivating teachers and involving other volunteers (e. g. parents, grandparents) may be needed. Future studies should investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of drop-off spots in a larger sample of schools

Children's GPS‑determined versus self‑reported transport in leisure time and associations with parental perceptions of the neighborhood environment

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to examine both GPS-determined and self-reported walking, cycling and passive transport in leisure time during week- and weekend-days among 10 to 12-year old children. Comparisons between GPS-determined and self-reported transport in leisure time were investigated. Second, associations between parental perceptions of the neighborhood environment and GPS-determined walking, cycling and passive transport in leisure time were studied. METHODS: Children (10 to 12-years old; n = 126) wore a GPS device and an accelerometer for 7 consecutive days to assess objectively measured transport in leisure time and filled out a diary to assess self-reported transport in leisure time. Parents completed a questionnaire to assess parental perceptions of the neighborhood environment. Pearson correlations and t-tests were used to test for concurrent validity and differences between GPS-determined and self-reported transport in leisure time. Generalized linear models were used to determine the associations between the parental perceptions of the neighborhood environment and GPS-determined transport in leisure time. RESULTS: Overall, children under-reported their walking and cycling in leisure time, compared to GPS-determined measures (all p values <0.001). However, children reported their passive transport in leisure time during weekend days quite accurate. GPS-determined measures revealed that children walked most during weekdays (M = 3.96 trips/day; 26.10 min/day) and used passive transport more frequently during weekend days (M = 2.12 trips/day; 31.39 min/day). Only a few parental perceived environmental attributes of the neighborhood (i.e. residential density, land use mix access, quality and availability of walking and cycling facilities, and aesthetics) were significantly associated with children's GPS-determined walking, cycling or passive transport in leisure time. CONCLUSIONS: To accurately assess children's active transport in leisure time, GPS measures are recommended over self-reports. More research using GPS with a focus on children's transport in leisure time and investigating the associations with parental perceptions of the neighborhood environment is needed to confirm the results of the present study

Which socio-ecological factors associate with a switch to or maintenance of active and passive transport during the transition from primary to secondary school?

OBJECTIVES: The aim was to investigate which individual, psychosocial and physical neighborhood environmental factors associate with children's switch to or maintenance of active/passive transport to school and to leisure time destinations during the transition from primary to secondary school. METHODS: Children (n = 313) filled out a questionnaire in the last year of primary school and 2 years later to assess socio-demographic characteristics and self-reported transport. One of their parents completed a questionnaire to assess parental perceptions of psychosocial and physical neighborhood environmental factors. RESULTS: The increase of the home-school distance was significantly associated with children's switch to or maintenance of passive transport to school compared to a switch to (OR = 0.81; p = 0.03) and maintenance (OR = 0.87; p = 0.03) of active transport to school. Low SES was associated with children's switch to active transport to school compared to maintenance of active transport (OR = 3.67; p = 0.07). For transport to leisure time destinations, other factors such as parental perceived neighborhood safety from traffic and crime (OR = 2.78; p = 0.004), a positive social norm (OR = 1.49; p = 0.08), positive attitudes (OR = 1.39; p = 0.08) (i.e. more benefits, less barriers) towards their children's physical activity and poor walking/cycling facilities in the neighborhood (OR = 0.70; p = 0.06) were associated with children's maintenance of active transport to leisure time destinations compared to a switch to or maintenance of passive transport. CONCLUSIONS: This longitudinal study can give directions for interventions promoting children's active transport during the transition to secondary school. It is necessary to promote different possibilities at primary school for children to use active transport when going to secondary school. Walking/cycling a part of the home-school trip can be a possible solution for children who will be living at non-feasible distances from secondary school. Providing safe neighborhoods, combined with programs for parents stimulating a positive social norm and positive attitudes towards physical activity during primary school, can be effective

Using an audit tool (MAPS Global) to assess the characteristics of the physical environment related to walking for transport in youth : reliability of Belgian data

Background: The aim was to examine inter-rater and alternate-form reliability of the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) Global tool to assess the physical environment along likely walking routes in Belgium. Methods: For 65 children participating in the BEPAS-children study, routes between their individual homes and the nearest pre-defined destination were defined. Using MAPS Global, physical environmental characteristics of the routes were audited by 4 trained auditors (2 on-site, 2 online using Google Street View). Inter-rater reliability was studied for on-site and online ratings separately. Alternate-form reliability was examined by comparing on-site with online ratings. Results: Inter-rater reliability for on-site ratings was acceptable for 68% of items (kappa range 0.03–1.00) and for online ratings for 60% of items (kappa range −0.03 to 1.00). Acceptable alternate-form reliability was reported for 60% of items (kappa range −0.01 to 1.00/r range 0.31–1.00). Conclusions: MAPS Global can be used to assess the physical environment of potential walking routes. For areas where Google Street View imagery is widely covered and often updated, MAPS Global can be completed online

Physical activity and sedentary time and their relationship to BMI in 6-9 year old European children

PURPOSE: Physical activity and sedentary behaviour are nowadays seen as independent indicators of childhood overweight. This study investigated differences in BMI z-scores between four groups created by a combination of high and low levels of moderate-to vigorous PA (MVPA) and sedentary time (ST) in 6-9 year old European children. Secondly, it was studied if weight status could be predicted by MVPA and ST at one point in time and over 2 years. METHOD: Data were used from the IDEFICS study (8 participating European countries): 3220 6-9 year olds were included in the cross-sectional study and 995 in the longitudinal study. Weight and height were measured at T0 (in 2007) and T1 (in 2009) and were used to calculate BMI z-scores. PA and ST were objectively assessed at T0 using accelerometry. The cut points of Evenson et al. were used to calculate minutes per day spent in MVPA and ST. RESULT(S): The group with MVPAlow and STlow, had higher BMI z-scores compared to children in the two groups with MVPAhigh in combination with STlow and SThigh. Furthermore, only time spent in MVPA could predict weight status in 6-9 year olds at one point in time and over 2 years. Sedentary time was no predictor of weight status. CONCLUSION(S): MVPA and not ST seems to play an important rolefin the development of childhood overweight. More research is needed in 6-9 year old children to investigate the influence of objectively measured PA combined with ST in the development of childhood overweight

Assessing the physical environment related to cycling and walking

Background: Walking and cycling are accessible and inexpensive forms of physical activity, which can be easily integrated in daily routines of life. Socio-ecological models are used to study the influencing factors of these behaviors, and highlight the importance of physical environmental elements, in combination with the individual and psychosocial elements. However, assessing the physical environment remains challenging. Purpose: To give an overview of methods that can be used to assess the physical environment in relation with walking and cycling. Approach: Both objective (e.g. audit tools, geographic information systems and global positioning systems) and subjective (e.g. questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, photo-voice, walk- and bike-along interviews and photographs) measurement methods are discussed. These measurement tools and their applications, advantages and limitations are discussed. Findings: From this chapter, it can be concluded that there are a number of instruments which can be used to assess the physical environment. At this moment, there is no method that can be considered as the gold standard. Depending on the aim of the study and the recourses available, one specific method or a combination of methods will be most appropriate. Implications: Practitioners, researchers and policy makers are informed about the possibilities on how to assess the physical environment, and more importantly, this will ensure that there is more insight on how the physical environmental should be created, in order that people will be more involved in walking and cycling for transport