Item and error analysis on Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices in Williams Syndrome

Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM) is a standardised test that is commonly used to obtain a non-verbal reasoning score for children. As the RCPM involves the matching of a target to a pattern it is also considered to be a visuo-spatial perception task. RCPM is therefore frequently used in studies in Williams Syndrome (WS), in order to match WS participants to a control group or as a single measure to predict performance on a test-condition in developmental trajectory analyses. However, little is known about the performance of participants with WS on the RCPM. The current study compared the type of errors and the difficulty of each item for 53 participants with WS to 53 typically developing children who were individually matched on the total raw score for RCPM. Results showed that the participants with WS made the same proportion of error types and that the proportion of error types changed similarly to those of typically developing controls over development. Furthermore, the differential item difficulty between the two groups was highly similar. It is therefore argued that, although participants with WS are delayed on RCPM, their performance is not atypical which suggests that RCPM performance is supported by typical mechanisms. The RCPM is therefore a useful tool to match WS to control groups or to construct developmental trajectories

Sensory Processing in Williams Syndrome: Individual differences and changes over time

This study examined individual differences as well as the development of sensory processing difficulties in children with Williams syndrome (WS) using a cross-sectional (Experiment 1) and longitudinal design (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, a clustering approach of sensory processing scores suggested two groups. Experiment 2 showed that the clusters identified in Experiment 1 were not stable across development, especially for those with high sensory impairments at either time point. Yet, most children experienced high impairments in sensory registration at both time points, suggesting impaired registration is a core phenotype of sensory processing in children with WS across development. Possible mechanisms, limitations and implications are discussed

Improving preschoolers' number foundations

Mathematical competence is crucial for educational and financial success in modern societies. There is currently debate whether mathematical abilities later on in life depend on symbolic knowledge, such as counting abilities and digit recognition, or whether they rely upon non-symbolic knowledge, such as the ability to discriminate between large magnitudes that rely upon the approximate number sense (ANS). However, it is unclear whether symbolic abilities rely on non-symbolic ones (one-representation view) or whether symbolic and non-symbolic abilities are distinct systems (dual-representation view). Knowing what abilities predict mathematical success later on in life is important for the development of economically valid and efficient educational programmes, especially for those children who perform low on mathematical ability tasks or low achievers (LA). Our previous studies had shown that specially developed PLUS games, which target ANS abilities and require children to guess and see where is “more” or “less” very quickly, improved typically developing preschooler’s ANS abilities. However, it was unclear how the PLUS games compared to other training programmes, for example those that target symbolic knowledge, and whether the PLUS programme would benefit children who perform low on mathematical ability tasks. In this study we first examined which children performed low on mathematical ability tasks. Next, we compared the impact of two different training programmes on LA children’s ANS knowledge, their symbolic knowledge, and their mathematical abilities in general. One of the training programmes focused on nonsymbolic abilities using PLUS games, which targeted children’s ANS abilities, and the other programme included DIGIT games that targeted symbolic knowledge and focused on children’s counting abilities and digit knowledge. We included preschoolers as they would have received little formal education so far and thus have limited symbolic knowledge. In addition, we targeted those preschoolers who were performing below average on mathematical ability tasks and who had low ANS abilities. The inclusion of children who had both little symbolic and non-symbolic abilities allowed us to examine the foundations of mathematical abilities and to observe which training programme would benefit children’s general mathematical outcomes most. We predicted that if ANS abilities form the basis of mathematical abilities then children in the PLUS group would improve more than those in the DIGIT group. However, if non-symbolic and symbolic knowledge are two distinct systems then children in the DIGIT group should show improved mathematical abilities. Our results showed that, although there are a number of reasons why preschoolers perform low on mathematical ability tasks, most children identified as LA had low ANS abilities as well. This confirms results in previous studies that have found that ANS abilities are important for children’s mathematical abilities. The results from the training study showed that both training groups improved equally on a number of mathematical ability tasks that assess symbolic knowledge, including counting abilities, digit recognition, and understanding of counting as well as those that require non-symbolic knowledge, including ANS abilities. Finally, both groups showed improved general mathematical abilities and over 50% of LA children were no longer considered as low achievers on mathematical ability tasks six months later. Therefore, the current results suggest that LA preschoolers benefit from playing daily mathematical games that target both non-symbolic abilities, the PLUS games, as well as symbolic ones, the DIGIT games. In addition, there is a complex interaction between symbolic, non-symbolic abilities, and mathematical cognition in preschoolers in that children who played DIGIT games also showed improved nonsymbolic abilities. Future studies should examine longitudinal outcomes and assesses which LA children continue to show mathematical difficulties or whether the training programmes benefit LA children long term. In addition, larger controlled trials are needed to verify the current findings. Based upon the current results we would recommend that all preschool children engage in daily games that support mathematical development, including both PLUS and DIGIT games, as this will allow LA children to reach their full potential

Home literacy environment and literacy outcomes in individuals with Williams syndrome and Down syndrome

Background: The home literacy environment (HLE) has rarely been examined for individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders, including individuals with Williams syndrome and Down syndrome. Method: The current study surveyed carers of individuals with Down syndrome (n = 48) and Williams syndrome (n = 18) in the United Kingdom (UK). Results: The study reports that individuals with Down syndrome were rated higher in general reading skills and writing, while the Williams syndrome group scored higher for speaking. Yet, individuals with Down syndrome were more likely to engage in informal activities than instructional activities and the frequency of informal activities related to reading outcomes for those with Down syndrome but not Williams syndrome. Additionally, this study reports that age was not related to the HLE for both groups. Conclusion: This is the first study to report on the HLE of individuals with Williams syndrome and supports the key role of the HLE in the development of literacy skills for individuals with Williams syndrome and Down syndrome

40 facts about Williams Syndrome

To celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Williams Syndrome Foundation and to raise awareness of Williams syndrome, we have put together 40 research-evidenced facts about Williams syndrome. Williams Syndrome is a rare genetic condition that is caused by a deletion of genetic material on the long arm of chromosome 7. It occurs sporadically in about 1 in 18,000 people. This fact sheet provides information on the medical aspects, brain development, cognitive and behavioural profiles, education, support and intervention and career outcomes of people with Williams syndrome, all of which are based on scientific research. These facts were randomly chosen from topics that we discussed during our lab meetings. This fact sheet can be used as a resource to pass on to family members, teachers and professionals

Determining the extent to which L1 learner choices influence the L2 : exploring semantic and syntactic choices

This study tests Jiang’s (2004) 3-stage model of second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Jiang observed continued first language (L1) [Korean] semantic mediation in L2 processing among advanced L2 speakers. We hypothesise, however, that mediation might depend on the developing proficiency of the L2 learner and the relationship between L1 and L2. We explored the extent to which L1 background influences the processing of semantics and syntax in L2 (English). Three different L1 subject groups (n=30 per group): English, European, and Japanese. L1 European speakers were tested because their L1 shares the same word order as the L2, in contrast to L1 Japanese speakers. Two reaction time (RT) experiments were conducted to determine whether strings of words accurately reflect English syntax or semantics. Using the L1 English subject group as a control, we compared the choices made by our three groups. We also examined the L2 (English) learners’ vocabulary size. Overall the RTs were slower for incorrect syntactic word strings. The syntax RTs of the European and Japanese groups showed differences between correct and incorrect strings. However, the Japanese group showed no difference between SVO correct and incorrect strings. The semantic RTs did not differ between the L2 groups but the control group was faster. Initial findings suggest that L2 word order judgement latencies are mediated more by L1 word order; however, L2 semantic judgement latencies seem less mediated by differences in L1 word order. The findings are discussed in light of Jiang’s model and how the role of L1 word order is closer related to L2 syntactic processing than semantic processing. References Jiang, N. (2004) ‘Semantic transfer and its implications for vocabulary teaching in a second language’. The Modern Language Journal, 88 (3), pp.416-432

Young children’s science learning from a touchscreen app

Many technological applications (apps) purport to help children learn academic material. Building on research in developmental and educational psychology, we developed and tested an app to teach biological and physical science content to preschool children. There were 21 children in the control condition (Mage = 50.30 months, SD = 8.61) and 21 children in the intervention condition (Mage = 53.21 months old, SD = 6.36). Children were given pre- assessments and post-assessments of their understanding of living things, inheritance, buoyancy, and balance. Half were assigned to play the app for 3 weeks or to a control condition that only completed the assessments. Based on ANCOVA and ANOVA models, children in the app condition increased in their understanding of living things and buoyancy on a near-transfer task from pre-test to post-test assessment, whereas the children in the control condition did not increase their understanding. The findings suggest that drill and tests apps focusing on science content that take account of folk theories of science can support children’s science learning

Perceptual subitizing and conceptual subitizing in Williams syndrome and Down syndrome: Insights from eye movements

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Mathematical difficulties in individuals with Williams Syndrome (WS) and in individuals with Down Syndrome (DS) are well-established. Perceptual subitizing and conceptual subitizing are domain-specific precursors of mathematical achievement in typically developing (TD) population. This study employed, for the first time, eye-tracking methodology to investigate subitizing abilities in WS and DS. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Twenty-five participants with WS and 24 participants with DS were compared to a younger group of TD children (n = 25) matched for mental age. Participants were asked to enumerate one to six dots arranged either in a dice or a random pattern. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Accuracy rates and analyses of reaction time showed no significant differences between the clinical groups (WS and DS) and the control group, suggesting that all participants used the same processes to perform the enumeration task in the different experimental conditions. Analyses of the eye movements showed that both individuals with WS and individuals with DS were using inefficient scanning strategies when counting. Moreover, analyses of the eye movements showed significantly shorter fixation duration in participants with DS compared to the control group in all the experimental conditions. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The current study provides evidence that individuals with WS and individuals with DS perform both perceptual subitizing and conceptual subitizing. Moreover, our results suggest a fixation instability in DS group that does not affect their performance when subitizing but might explain their low accuracy rates when counting. Findings are discussed in relation to previous studies and the impact for intervention programmes to improve counting and symbolic mathematical abilities in these populations