Cetacean Exploitation in Medieval Northern and Western Europe: Zooarchaeological, Historical, and Social Approaches

Medieval cetacean exploitation has often been connected to various societies, including the Basques, Norse, Normans, and Flemish. The extent to which active whaling was practiced remains unclear. Furthermore, primarily for the ninth to the twelfth centuries AD, it has been argued that the symbolic significance of cetaceans surpassed their utilitarian value and that their consumption was restricted to the social elite. For many European regions, laws were set in place ensuring that any stranded cetacean was the property of the social elite. Little research has been conducted on zooarchaeological cetacean remains. The identification of cetacean fragments to the species level is hard and are frequently merely identified as “whale” resulting in a poor understanding of human-cetacean interaction in the past. As part of this study, a literature review was undertaken for which medieval sites from Northern and Western Europe where cetacean remains have been found were assessed. The Osteological Reference for Cetaceans in Archaeology-Manual (ORCAManual) was created to optimize identification of cetaceans remains. Furthermore, a select number of remains were re-examined using the created ORCA-manual as well as Zooarchaeology by Mass-Spectrometry (ZooMS), in order to identify the remains to species level. This study indicates that especially the harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis), and the common bottlenose dolphin (Turiops truncatus) are well represented in the medieval archaeological record, indeed suggesting that active hunting was occasionally undertaken. Several specimens of the grey whale were also identified, suggesting that active whaling might be one of the reasons why the species disappeared from European waters. Medieval cetacean remains are frequently recovered from high-status and ecclesiastical sites, suggesting that the exploitation and consumption of cetaceans was restricted to the social elite, though they are also recovered from “rural” site types, suggesting peasant efforts to undermine elite control of stranded cetaceans

Interactive effects of cadmium and benzo(a)pyrene in mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus)

When animals are exposed to mixtures of environmental pollutants, it is generally assumed that the toxic effects of the individual components are additive. However, examples of synergistic and antagonistic effects have been described. to study the mechanisms of interaction between a metal and a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) were injected with combinations of cadmium (Cd) and benzo (a) pyrene (BP). Measured effect parameters were: mortality, BP-metabolite production in isolated hepatocytes and microsomes, hepatic induction of CYP1A (the BP metabolizing enzyme) and metallothionein (the Cd binding protein), and biliary excretion of BP-metabolites. The mortality data demonstrated that both synergistic and antagonistic effects can occur. A Cd dose of 0.32 mg/kg significantly reduced the expected mortality caused by BP. In contrast, a BP dose of 10 mg/kg significantly increased the toxicity of Cd above the expected mortality. to study the mechanisms of these interactive effects, liver cells (hepatocytes) were isolated from fish that were previously injected with combinations of Cd and BP. These cells were exposed to radiolabeled BP to study the rate of BP metabolism, and the formation of BP-metabolites. Cadmium exposure had an overall inhibiting effect on the metabolism of BP. No effects of Cd were observed on the formation of individual metabolites. to distinguish between direct interference of Cd with CYP1A at the active site versus indirect interference by inhibiting CYP1A induction, microsomal preparations were evaluated for enzyme activity and enzyme concentration. While there was no direct effect of Cd on enzyme catalytic activity, there was an effect on CYP1A production. The demonstrated inhibition of BP metabolism by Cd would suggest a reduced excretion of BP-metabolites. However, analysis of bile and water samples after fish were injected with radiolabeled BP demonstrated an enhanced biliary excretion of conjugated BP-metabolites under influence of Cd. Cadmium exposure caused a significant induction of hepatic metallothionein in the fish. When BP was dosed together with Cd, the induction of MT was inhibited. The hypothesis that reactive BP metabolites would compete with Cd for binding sites on MT could not be confirmed. There was no measurable binding of BP to MT