Understanding and Improving Malaria Diagnosis in Health Facilities in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

In Tanzania, as in most settings of sub-Saharan Africa, malaria is the first reported cause of attendance in health facilities. The National Bureau of Statistics estimates that a total of 16 million cases and 100,000 deaths (mainly in children) are due to malaria each year. In Dar es Salaam, the main city, approximately 3 million attendances are recorded, of which about one third are due to fever, mostly considered as presumptive malaria. Recent data show that transmission intensity is much lower in urban settings than in rural lowland areas. This is especially true for Dar es Salaam where only a small fraction of all fever episodes in children and adults are actually associated with Plasmodium parasitaemia. Clinical presentation of malaria is largely unspecific. No reliable clinical predictor that allows including or excluding the diagnosis of malaria has been identified. In this context, and in the absence of diagnostic test, WHO recommended in the past all fever episodes to be treated with antimalarials. Such blanket treatment leads first to substantial over-treatment with malaria drugs (in Dar es Salaam up to 95% of all treatments are unnecessary) and second to increased risk of missing alternative diagnoses with potentially fatal outcome. To address this issue of high public health relevance, we undertook a project called IMALDIA (Improving Malaria Diagnosis) aimed at improving the management of febrile patients in health facilities in Dar es Salaam, mainly through the implementation of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for malaria (mRDT). The project had 3 major components: (1) Evaluating the safety of withholding antimalarials in febrile children with a negative mRDT living in a moderate and a highly endemic area (2) Introducing laboratory diagnosis for malaria in the routine management of fever cases, using mRDT. The focus of this operational research was to document how feasible and effective the introduction of these tests is in the context of the routine management of fever cases. (3) Understanding the aetiologies of fever cases in children by screening a group of 1000 children with detailed clinical assessments and a range of laboratory tests in order to better identify the diversity of the causes of fever in small children living in an urban and a rural area. The overall aim of the IMALDIA project was to improve the diagnostic approach and management of fever cases in health facilities in Dar es Salaam, contribute to a more efficient and effective health sector, and help Tanzania on its way to reducing infant and child mortality.In a first step, we assessed the diagnostic performance of mRDT when used by health workers in routine practice. For this purpose, a quality assurance system both at central and peripheral level was set up. This system did not detect major problem and showed that the final result of mRDT by health workers was reliable. Summary X The purpose of the second step was to better estimate the pre-test probability of malaria in populations targeted by mRDT (febrile patients of all age groups attending a health facility of any type). To this end we undertook a systematic review of the studies giving the proportion of patients with associated P. falciparum parasitemia (PFPf) in Sub-Saharan Africa. We found that the median PFPf was 35%, and that it had decreased by half when comparing the period before with the period after the year 2000 (44% versus 22%). This relatively low pre-test probability nowadays is another reason to implement mRDT in Africa. In Dar es Salaam the PFPf was very low (below 10%) hence it was even more urgent to start using a reliable malaria test. Microscopy was available in almost all public health facilities of the city but its performance was extremely low, with an overall sensitivity of 71% and a specificity of only 47%. On the request of several Tanzanian stake-holders, in particular clinicians working routinely with patients, we assessed the safety of withholding antimalarials in children under five years with a negative malaria test. We did not observe any complication or death due to a missed diagnosis of malaria in our cohort of 1000 children, of which 60% were negative by mRDT. We concluded that the strategy of withholding antimalarials in negative children is safe and does not expose the child to an increased risk. The results of the systematic review coupled with the findings of the safety study led us to question the appropriateness of the previous WHO recommendation of treating all fevers with antimalarials in children less than five years living in highly endemic areas. WHO has now changed its policy, confirming that the IMALDIA findings were very relevant to the changed situation of many African countries, including Tanzania. The core of this thesis, and the main objective of the IMALDIA project, was to investigate the feasibility and value of implementing mRDT in the management of fever episodes in an urban malaria setting. Using 2 different designs and 2 independent data sources, we found a three quarter reduction in antimalarial consumption following RDT implementation. This massive reduction was due to the higher accuracy of routine mRDT compared to routine microscopy (that led to a dramatic reduction in the number of positive patients) and to the confidence of health workers in mRDT results (the proportion of negative patients treated with antimalarials dropped from 53% to 7%). The impact was maintained up to the end of the observation period (18 months). Not surprisingly, mRDT implementation increased the prescription of antibiotics by 50% and unfortunately did not have a major impact on the quality of the medical consultation. We took the opportunity of our near-to-program implementation of mRDT to perform a cost-saving analysis in a real situation and in a setting representative of many moderate endemic places in Africa. The conclusion was that costs can be saved on drugs, from both the provider and from the client’s perspective. For this reason, the overall expenditure for the patient was lower in health facilities using mRDT (by 0.31 USD per patient). However, the overall expenditure for the health Summary XI system was higher (by 1.31 USD per patient) when using mRDT instead of routine microscopy, mainly because of the relatively high price of the device. The aim of the last study was to explore the other causes of fever (beside malaria), in order to generate evidence for a revision of the existing clinical decision-charts for the management of patients, in particular the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI). Half of the fever episodes in children were due to acute respiratory infections (ARI), of which 2/3 were probably of viral origin. Only 5% of all ARI were documented pneumonia. Gastroenteritis contributed to 9% of all fevers, of which at least 1/3 were due to a virus. In 1/5 of the children, no aetiology of high probability could be found but most of them recovered without treatment. Most of the children with acute fever thus do not need to receive an antibiotic. Based on these findings, we proposed a limited series of modifications to the IMCI chart and concluded that new point-of-care laboratory tests for the main infectious diseases are urgently needed. In conclusion, the IMALDIA project provided a deep insight into many aspects of the implementation of mRDT in near-to-programme conditions in Tanzania. Our findings show that the introduction of mRDT is safe, feasible and useful for the routine management of fever cases in all age groups and at all levels of the health system. Implementation at large scale will require flexibility on the part of the health care provider in order to be able to change his/her behaviour and a strong commitment of all persons involved. As malaria diagnosis is only one aspect of the management of patients presenting with fever, this will not solve all obstacles for making a proper differential diagnosis and prescribing the appropriate treatment for fever episodes. To really improve the quality of care it will be essential to develop new improved guidelines for clinicians. These decision charts should be based on the new available evidence and could include novel point-of-care tests for the key diseases, once these become availabl

Epidemiology of sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Switzerland: a local, exploratory, cross-sectional study

Female sex workers are often considered highly vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections (STIs). However, data on STI epidemiology in female sex workers are lacking in Switzerland. Our main goal was to evaluate the prevalence of six STIs (human immunodeficiency virus [HIV], hepatitis B, hepatitis C, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and syphilis) among local female sex workers in Lausanne. A local, exploratory, cross-sectional study was conducted on a convenience sample of adult (≥18 years) Female sex workers in Lausanne, Switzerland, from 1 April 2015 to 31 December 2016. female sex workers who worked in street sex venues, massage parlours and brothels were approached for recruitment by a local non-governmental organisation. They were then invited to present at the Lausanne University Hospital, where they were offered a free STI screening and hepatitis A and B vaccination. We enrolled 96 female sex workers. They were predominantly undocumented immigrants (60%) from Africa and Eastern Europe with no health insurance; only one participant (1%) was Swiss born. During the study, 15 (16%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 9–23%) participants were newly confirmed to have an STI: six (6%; 95% CI 1–11%) had C. trachomatis, five (5%; 95% CI 0.6-9%) latent syphilis and four (4%; 95% CI 0.1–8%) hepatitis B (three with chronic active infection and one with past exposure). No human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections were newly diagnosed among the participants. Nineteen (20%) of the female sex workers were already vaccinated against hepatitis B, and 73 (76%) initiated vaccination against hepatitis A and hepatitis B during the study. Forty-four (46%) of the female sex workers required translation and assistance from social services

Travellers' profile, travel patterns and vaccine practices—a 10-year prospective study in a Swiss Travel Clinic

The travel clinic in Lausanne serves a catchment area of 700 000 of inhabitants and provides pre- and post-travel consultations. This study describes the profile of attendees before departure, their travel patterns and the travel clinic practices in terms of vaccination over time.; We included all pre-travel first consultation data recorded between November 2002 and December 2012 by a custom-made program DIAMM/G. We analysed client profiles, travel characteristics and vaccinations prescribed over time.; Sixty-five thousand and forty-six client-trips were recorded. Fifty-one percent clients were female. Mean age was 32 years. In total, 0.1% were aged <1 year and 0.2% ≥80 years. Forty-six percent of travellers had pre-existing medical conditions. Forty-six percent were travelling to Africa, 35% to Asia, 20% to Latin America and 1% (each) to Oceania and Europe; 19% visited more than one country. India was the most common destination (9.6% of travellers) followed by Thailand (8.6%) and Kenya (6.4%). Seventy-three percent of travellers were planning to travel for ≤ 4 weeks. The main reasons for travel were tourism (75%) and visiting friends and relatives (18%). Sixteen percent were backpackers. Pre-travel advice were sought a median of 29 days before departure. Ninety-nine percent received vaccine(s). The most frequently administered vaccines were hepatitis A (53%), tetanus-diphtheria (46%), yellow fever (39%), poliomyelitis (38%) and typhoid fever (30%).; The profile of travel clinic attendees was younger than the general Swiss population. A significant proportion of travellers received vaccinations that are recommended in the routine national programme. These findings highlight the important role of travel clinics to (i) take care of an age group that has little contact with general practitioners and (ii) update vaccination status. The most commonly prescribed travel-related vaccines were for hepatitis A and yellow fever. The question remains to know whether clients do attend travel clinics because of compulsory vaccinations or because of real travel health concern or both

Factors Associated With COVID-19 Non-Vaccination in Switzerland: A Nationwide Study

Objectives: We compared socio-demographic characteristics, health-related variables, vaccination-related beliefs and attitudes, vaccination acceptance, and personality traits of individuals who vaccinated against COVID-19 and who did not vaccinate by December 2021.Methods: This cross-sectional study used data of 10,642 adult participants from the Corona Immunitas eCohort, an age-stratified random sample of the population of several cantons in Switzerland. We used multivariable logistic regression models to explore associations of vaccination status with socio-demographic, health, and behavioral factors.Results: Non-vaccinated individuals represented 12.4% of the sample. Compared to vaccinated individuals, non-vaccinated individuals were more likely to be younger, healthier, employed, have lower income, not worried about their health, have previously tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection, express lower vaccination acceptance, and/or report higher conscientiousness. Among non-vaccinated individuals, 19.9% and 21.3% had low confidence in the safety and effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, respectively. However, 29.1% and 26.7% of individuals with concerns about vaccine effectiveness and side effects at baseline, respectively vaccinated during the study period.Conclusion: In addition to known socio-demographic and health-related factors, non-vaccination was associated with concerns regarding vaccine safety and effectiveness