Distance decay 2.0-A global synthesis of taxonomic and functional turnover in ecological communities

Aim: Understanding the variation in community composition and species abundances (i.e., beta-diversity) is at the heart of community ecology. A common approach to examine beta-diversity is to evaluate directional variation in community composition by measuring the decay in the similarity among pairs of communities along spatial or environmental distance. We provide the first global synthesis of taxonomic and functional distance decay along spatial and environmental distance by analysing 148 datasets comprising different types of organisms and environments. Location: Global. Time period: 1990 to present. Major taxa studied: From diatoms to mammals. Method: We measured the strength of the decay using ranked Mantel tests (Mantel r) and the rate of distance decay as the slope of an exponential fit using generalized linear models. We used null models to test whether functional similarity decays faster or slower than expected given the taxonomic decay along the spatial and environmental distance. We also unveiled the factors driving the rate of decay across the datasets, including latitude, spatial extent, realm and organismal features. Results: Taxonomic distance decay was stronger than functional distance decay along both spatial and environmental distance. Functional distance decay was random given the taxonomic distance decay. The rate of taxonomic and functional spatial distance decay was fastest in the datasets from mid-latitudes. Overall, datasets covering larger spatial extents showed a lower rate of decay along spatial distance but a higher rate of decay along environmental distance. Marine ecosystems had the slowest rate of decay along environmental distances. Main conclusions: In general, taxonomic distance decay is a useful tool for biogeographical research because it reflects dispersal-related factors in addition to species responses to climatic and environmental variables. Moreover, functional distance decay might be a cost-effective option for investigating community changes in heterogeneous environments

Low water quality in tropical fishponds in southeastern Brazil

Expansion of aquaculture around the world has heavily impacted the environment. Because fertilizers are needed to raise fish, one of the main impacts is eutrophication, which lowers water quality and increases the frequency of algal blooms, mostly cyanobacteria. To evaluate whether the water quality in 30 fishponds in southeastern Brazilian met the requirements of Brazilian legislation, we analyzed biotic and abiotic water conditions. We expected that the high nutrient levels due to fertilization would cause low water quality. We also analyzed cyanotoxins in seston and fish muscle in some systems where cyanobacteria were dominant. The fishponds ranged from eutrophic and hypereutrophic with high phytoplankton biomass. Although cyanobacteria were dominant in most of the systems, cyanotoxins occurred in low concentrations, possibly because only two of the 12 dominant species were potential producers of microcystins. The high phosphorus concentrations caused the low water quality by increasing cyanobacteria, chlorophyll-a, turbidity, and thermotolerant coliforms, and by depleting dissolved oxygen. We found that all the 30 systems were inappropriate for fish culture, according to Brazilian legislation, based on at least one of the parameters measured. Furthermore, there was not any single system in the water-quality thresholds, according to the Brazilian legislation, to grow fish. Our findings indicate the need for better management to minimize the impacts of eutrophication in fishponds, in addition to a rigorous control to guarantee good food

Effect of suspended clay on growth rates of the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii

Recent studies have shown that sediment resuspension may lead to the collapse of C. raciborskii dominance, which suggests that clay might have a negative effect on the growth of C. raciborskii. To test the hypothesis that suspended clay creates an unfavorable environment for growth of C. raciborskii, we exposed four different strains of this species to various concentrations of the clays kaolinite and bentonite, and monitored the biomass of each strain over the course of 1-week microcosm experiments. Contrary to our hypothesis, C. raciborskii was able to grow in suspensions of both clays. While kaolinite clay caused higher turbidity than bentonite, the growth rates of all four C. raciborskii strains were higher in kaolinite than in bentonite suspensions. C. raciborskii could still grow in clay concentrations that cause turbidity far above the levels found in natural lakes. Our study suggests that the reported collapse of C. raciborskii blooms with high concentrations of suspended sediments in tropical shallow lakes is probably not caused by the effects of suspended clay on light attenuation, but rather is a consequence of cell sinking or, possibly a response to disturbance events responsible for sediment suspension

Increasing Temperature Counteracts the Negative Effect of UV Radiation on Growth and Photosynthetic Efficiency of Microcystis aeruginosa and Raphidiopsis raciborskii

High temperature can promote cyanobacterial blooms, whereas ultraviolet radiation (UVR) can potentially depress cyanobacterial growth by damaging their photosynthetic apparatus. Although the damaging effect of UVR has been well documented, reports on the interactive effects of UV radiation exposure and warming on cyanobacteria remain scarce. To better understand the combined effects of temperature and UVR on cyanobacteria, two strains of nuisance species, Microcystis aeruginosa (MIRF) and Raphidiopsis raciborskii (formerly Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, CYRF), were grown at 24°C and 28°C and were daily exposed to UVA + UVB (PAR + UVA+UVB) or only UVA (PAR + UVA) radiation. MIRF and CYRF growth rates were most affected by PAR + UVA+UVB treatment and to a lesser extent by the PAR + UVA treatment. Negative UVR effects on growth, Photosystem II (PSII) efficiency and photosynthesis were pronounced at 24°C when compared to that at 28°C. Our results showed a cumulative negative effect on PSII efficiency in MIRF, but not in CYRF. Hence, although higher temperature ameliorates UVR damage, interspecific differences may lead to deviating impacts on different species, and combined elevated temperature and UVR stress could influence species competition.</p

Critical assessment of chitosan as coagulant to remove cyanobacteria

Removal of cyanobacteria from the water column using a coagulant and a ballast compound is a promising technique to mitigate nuisance. As coagulant the organic, biodegradable polymer chitosan has been promoted. Results in this study show that elevated pH, as may be common during cyanobacterial blooms, as well as high alkalinity may hamper the coagulation of chitosan and thus impair its ability to effectively remove positively buoyant cyanobacteria from the water column. The underlying mechanism is likely a shielding of the protonated groups by anions. Inasmuch as there are many chitosan formulations, thorough testing of each chitosan prior to its application is essential. Results obtained in glass tubes were similar to those from standard jar tests demonstrating that glass tube tests can be used for testing effects of coagulants and ballasts in cyanobacteria removal whilst allowing far more replicates. There was no relation between zeta potential and precipitated cyanobacteria. Given the well-known antibacterial activity of chitosan and recent findings of anti-cyanobacterial effects, pre-application tests are needed to decipher if chitosan may cause cell leakage of cyanotoxins. Efficiency- and side-effect testing are crucial for water managers to determine if the selected approach can be used in tailor-made interventions to control cyanobacterial blooms and to mitigate eutrophication

Coagulation and precipitation of cyanobacterial blooms

Eutrophication is the prime water quality issue in inland waters. Eutrophication and its key symptom, harmful cyanobacterial blooms, is expected to further increase in the future, which highlights the importance of managing the issue. The reduction of external nutrient load is crucial but might not bring fast relief to eutrophic waters due to ongoing diffuse pollution and legacy nutrients in the sediment. In this context, in-lake measures are needed to speed-up recovery. In this review, we discuss different in-lake measures based on coagulation and precipitation of cyanobacteria and/or phosphate for different lake categories (e.g., shallow or deep, mainly external or internal nutrient load, occurrence of perennial or summer blooms). In deep lakes with an external nutrient load higher than the internal load, a “Floc and Sink” method could be used in which a coagulant (e.g. aluminium salts, Al-salts; chitosan) combined with a ballast (e.g. soil, clay) removes a cyanobacterial bloom out of the water column. In case the deep lake suffers from high internal load, a phosphate (P)-fixative (e.g. lanthanum modified bentonite or Al-salts) can be used to “Lock” the legacy P, possibly combined with a coagulant – a “Floc and Lock” technique. The latter approach will target both the particulate P in a bloom and the internal P load. A shallow lake that suffers from summer blooms and in which the internal load is higher than the external load, a “Lock” strategy of winter application of a P-fixative is proposed to prevent bloom development. In shallow lakes with perennial blooms, an agent to damage the cells (such as H2O2) is required together with a coagulant and a ballast to avoid recolonization of the water column due to resuspension – a “Kill, Floc and Sink/Lock” method. The selection of the most promising in-lake measures and materials should be based on a proper system diagnosis and tests prior to a full-scale intervention. These methods can be effective, but evidently reduction of external nutrient loads, both from point- and non-pointed sources, is an absolute necessity to restore aquatic ecosystems in a holistic sense

Functional redundancy increases towards the tropics in lake phytoplankton

It has been suggested that the overwhelming number of species in tropical ecosystems consist largely of "neutral" and functionally equivalent species. In phytoplankton, differences in functionality have been shown to be clearly distinguishable from morphological traits. Here we examine whether the increase in species towards the tropics goes together with an increase in functional richness or not. We analyse the latitudinal distribution of phytoplankton morphology-based functional groups (MBFG), the within-group richness and community morphological traits in 83 shallow lakes across South America (5-55°S). We further looked into explaining environmental variables. Despite the increment in species richness towards the (sub)tropics, the average number of MBFG remained constant. Furthermore, size average and variance decreased towards warmer regions. In warm lakes, phytoplankton communities were species rich but redundant in terms of belonging to a MBFG. Increasing species richness only translated into increasing number of rare species in some of the MBFG. In contrast, cold lakes were species poor but less redundant (i.e. essential to maintain the number of MBFG) and had a higher morphological variability. Our results support the hypothesis of higher functional redundancy in warmer areas and the relevance of increasing herbivory in colder regions as a main driving process of latitudinal patterns.</p

Controlling cyanobacterial blooms through effective flocculation and sedimentation with combined use of flocculants and phosphorus adsorbing natural soil and modified clay

Abstract Eutrophication often results in blooms of toxic cyanobacteria that hamper the use of lakes and reservoirs. In this paper, we experimentally evaluated the efficacy of a metal salt (poly-aluminium chloride, PAC) and chitosan, alone and combined with different doses of the lanthanum modified bentonite Phoslock® (LMB) or local red soil (LRS) to sediment positively buoyant cyanobacteria from Funil Reservoir, Brazil, (22°30′S, 44°45′W). We also tested the effect of calcium peroxide (CaO2) on suspended and settled cyanobacterial photosystem efficiency, and evaluated the soluble reactive P (SRP) adsorbing capacity of both LMB and LRS under oxic and anoxic conditions. Our data showed that buoyant cyanobacteria could be flocked and effectively precipitated using a combination of PAC or chitosan with LMB or LRS. The SRP sorption capacity of LMB was higher than that of LRS. The maximum P adsorption was lowered under anoxic conditions especially for LRS ballast. CaO2 addition impaired photosystem efficiency at 1 mg L−1 or higher and killed precipitated cyanobacteria at 4 mg L−1 or higher. A drawback was that oxygen production from the peroxide gave positive buoyancy again to the settled flocs. Therefore, further experimentations with slow release pellets are recommended