Financial Transaction Tax: Small is Beautiful

The case for taxing financial transactions merely to raise more revenues from the financial sector is not particularly strong. Better alternatives to tax the financial sector are likely to be available. However, a tax on financial transactions could be justified in order to limit socially undesirable transactions when more direct means of doing so are unavailable for political or practical reasons. Some financial transactions are indeed likely to do more harm than good, especially when they contribute to the systemic risk of the financial system. However, such a financial transaction tax should be very small, much smaller than the negative externalities in question, because it is a blunt instrument that also drives out socially useful transactions. There is a case for taxing over-the-counter derivative transactions at a somewhat higher rate than exchange-based derivative transactions. More targeted remedies to drive out socially undesirable transactions should be sought in parallel, which would allow, after their implementation, to reduce or even phase out financialtransaction taxes

The electronic structure of (C59N)2 from high energy spectroscopy

We report the results of a detailed study of the occupied and unoccupied electronic structure of dimers of the new heterofullerene C59N by means of photoemission and electron energy-loss spectroscopy. A close similarity is found between the electronic structures of pristine (C59N)2 and C60 with an additional broadening of the spectra in the former due to the distortion of the fullerene cage caused both by dimerization and the chemical substitution. Both the occupied and unoccupied electronic states, as well as the interband transitions between them, attest to the high degree of molecular character retained in the solid state. Comparison of the shake-up structures in the C1s and N1s X-ray photo emission spectra confirm that the highest lying occupied states in the heterofullerene have a strong degree of N character, whereas the lowest lying unoccupied states have mainly C character. We also present the optical conductivity of the heterofullerene (derived from the loss function), which shows an optical gap of 1.4 eV, some 0.4 eV smaller than that of C60

On the structure of maximal solvable extensions and of Levi extensions of nilpotent algebras

We establish an improved upper estimate on dimension of any solvable algebra s with its nilradical isomorphic to a given nilpotent Lie algebra n. Next we consider Levi decomposable algebras with a given nilradical n and investigate restrictions on possible Levi factors originating from the structure of characteristic ideals of n. We present a new perspective on Turkowski's classification of Levi decomposable algebras up to dimension 9.Comment: 21 pages; major revision - one section added, another erased; author's version of the published pape

All solvable extensions of a class of nilpotent Lie algebras of dimension n and degree of nilpotency n-1

We construct all solvable Lie algebras with a specific n-dimensional nilradical n_(n,2) (of degree of nilpotency (n-1) and with an (n-2)-dimensional maximal Abelian ideal). We find that for given n such a solvable algebra is unique up to isomorphisms. Using the method of moving frames we construct a basis for the Casimir invariants of the nilradical n_(n,2). We also construct a basis for the generalized Casimir invariants of its solvable extension s_(n+1) consisting entirely of rational functions of the chosen invariants of the nilradical.Comment: 19 pages; added references, changes mainly in introduction and conclusions, typos corrected; submitted to J. Phys. A, version to be publishe

Realizations of Real Low-Dimensional Lie Algebras

Using a new powerful technique based on the notion of megaideal, we construct a complete set of inequivalent realizations of real Lie algebras of dimension no greater than four in vector fields on a space of an arbitrary (finite) number of variables. Our classification amends and essentially generalizes earlier works on the subject. Known results on classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras, their automorphisms, differentiations, ideals, subalgebras and realizations are reviewed.Comment: LaTeX2e, 39 pages. Essentially exetended version. Misprints in Appendix are correcte

Pairing of Homologous Regions in the Mouse Genome Is Associated with Transcription but Not Imprinting Status

This work was funded by the BBSRC, grant BB/H088071/1 (www.bbsrc.ac.uk), MRC, grant G0700760 (www.mrc.ac.uk), Wellcome Trust, grant 095645/Z/11/Z (www.wellcome.ac.uk) and the EU through EpiGeneSys (www.epigenesys.eu) and Blueprint (www.blueprint-epigenome.eu). C.K. was funded by the DFG, personal fellowship KR 3317/2-1 (www.dfg.de) and CTR, personal short term fellowship (www.trophoblast.cam.ac.uk). M.J.H. received funding through grant NCI/NIH 2RO1 CA089426 (www.nih.gov)

Extensive Transcriptional Regulation of Chromatin Modifiers during Human Neurodevelopment

Epigenetic changes, including histone modifications or chromatin remodeling are regulated by a large number of human genes. We developed a strategy to study the coordinate regulation of such genes, and to compare different cell populations or tissues. A set of 150 genes, comprising different classes of epigenetic modifiers was compiled. This new tool was used initially to characterize changes during the differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) to central nervous system neuroectoderm progenitors (NEP). qPCR analysis showed that more than 60% of the examined transcripts were regulated, and >10% of them had a >5-fold increased expression. For comparison, we differentiated hESC to neural crest progenitors (NCP), a distinct peripheral nervous system progenitor population. Some epigenetic modifiers were regulated into the same direction in NEP and NCP, but also distinct differences were observed. For instance, the remodeling ATPase SMARCA2 was up-regulated >30-fold in NCP, while it remained unchanged in NEP; up-regulation of the ATP-dependent chromatin remodeler CHD7 was increased in NEP, while it was down-regulated in NCP. To compare the neural precursor profiles with those of mature neurons, we analyzed the epigenetic modifiers in human cortical tissue. This resulted in the identification of 30 regulations shared between all cell types, such as the histone methyltransferase SETD7. We also identified new markers for post-mitotic neurons, like the arginine methyl transferase PRMT8 and the methyl transferase EZH1. Our findings suggest a hitherto unexpected extent of regulation, and a cell type-dependent specificity of epigenetic modifiers in neurodifferentiation

Time evolution of in vivo articular cartilage repair induced by bone marrow stimulation and scaffold implantation in rabbits

Purpose: Tissue engineering techniques were used to study cartilage repair over a 12-month period in a rabbit model. Methods: A full-depth chondral defect along with subchondral bone injury were originated in the knee joint, where a biostable porous scaffold was implanted, synthesized of poly(ethyl acrylate-co-hydroxyethyl acrylate) copolymer. Morphological evolution of cartilage repair was studied 1 and 2 weeks, and 1, 3, and 12 months after implantation by histological techniques. The 3-month group was chosen to compare cartilage repair to an additional group where scaffolds were preseeded with allogeneic chondrocytes before implantation, and also to controls, who underwent the same surgery procedure, with no scaffold implantation. Results: Neotissue growth was first observed in the deepest scaffold pores 1 week after implantation, which spread thereafter; 3 months later scaffold pores were filled mostly with cartilaginous tissue in superficial and middle zones, and with bone tissue adjacent to subchondral bone. Simultaneously, native chondrocytes at the edges of the defect started to proliferate 1 week after implantation; within a month those edges had grown centripetally and seemed to embed the scaffold, and after 3 months, hyaline-like cartilage was observed on the condylar surface. Preseeded scaffolds slightly improved tissue growth, although the quality of repair tissue was similar to non-preseeded scaffolds. Controls showed that fibrous cartilage was mainly filling the repair area 3 months after surgery. In the 12-month group, articular cartilage resembled the untreated surface. Conclusions: Scaffolds guided cartilaginous tissue growth in vivo, suggesting their importance in stress transmission to the cells for cartilage repair.This study was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through MAT2010-21611-C03-00 project (including the FEDER financial support), by Conselleria de Educacion (Generalitat Valenciana, Spain) PROMETEO/2011/084 grant, and by CIBER-BBN en Bioingenieria, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina. The work of JLGR was partially supported by funds from the Generalitat Valenciana, ACOMP/2012/075 project. CIBER-BBN is an initiative funded by the VI National R&D&i Plan 2008-2011, Iniciativa Ingenio 2010, Consolider Program, CIBER Actions and financed by the - Instituto de Salud Carlos III with assistance from the European Regional Development Fund.Sancho-Tello Valls, M.; Forriol, F.; Gastaldi, P.; Ruiz Sauri, A.; Martín De Llano, JJ.; Novella-Maestre, E.; Antolinos Turpín, CM.... (2015). Time evolution of in vivo articular cartilage repair induced by bone marrow stimulation and scaffold implantation in rabbits. International Journal of Artificial Organs. 38(4):210-223. https://doi.org/10.5301/ijao.5000404S210223384Becerra, J., Andrades, J. A., Guerado, E., Zamora-Navas, P., López-Puertas, J. M., & Reddi, A. H. (2010). Articular Cartilage: Structure and Regeneration. Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews, 16(6), 617-627. doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2010.0191Nelson, L., Fairclough, J., & Archer, C. (2009). Use of stem cells in the biological repair of articular cartilage. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy, 10(1), 43-55. doi:10.1517/14712590903321470MAINIL-VARLET, P., AIGNER, T., BRITTBERG, M., BULLOUGH, P., HOLLANDER, A., HUNZIKER, E., … STAUFFER, E. (2003). HISTOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF CARTILAGE REPAIR. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 85, 45-57. doi:10.2106/00004623-200300002-00007Hunziker, E. B., Kapfinger, E., & Geiss, J. (2007). The structural architecture of adult mammalian articular cartilage evolves by a synchronized process of tissue resorption and neoformation during postnatal development. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, 15(4), 403-413. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2006.09.010Onyekwelu, I., Goldring, M. B., & Hidaka, C. (2009). Chondrogenesis, joint formation, and articular cartilage regeneration. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, 107(3), 383-392. doi:10.1002/jcb.22149Ahmed, T. A. E., & Hincke, M. T. (2010). Strategies for Articular Cartilage Lesion Repair and Functional Restoration. Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews, 16(3), 305-329. doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2009.0590Hangody, L., Kish, G., Kárpáti, Z., Udvarhelyi, I., Szigeti, I., & Bély, M. (1998). Mosaicplasty for the Treatment of Articular Cartilage Defects: Application in Clinical Practice. Orthopedics, 21(7), 751-756. doi:10.3928/0147-7447-19980701-04Steinwachs, M. R., Guggi, T., & Kreuz, P. C. (2008). Marrow stimulation techniques. Injury, 39(1), 26-31. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2008.01.042Brittberg, M., Lindahl, A., Nilsson, A., Ohlsson, C., Isaksson, O., & Peterson, L. (1994). Treatment of Deep Cartilage Defects in the Knee with Autologous Chondrocyte Transplantation. New England Journal of Medicine, 331(14), 889-895. doi:10.1056/nejm199410063311401Richter, W. (2009). Mesenchymal stem cells and cartilagein situregeneration. Journal of Internal Medicine, 266(4), 390-405. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2009.02153.xBartlett, W., Skinner, J. A., Gooding, C. R., Carrington, R. W. J., Flanagan, A. M., Briggs, T. W. R., & Bentley, G. (2005). Autologous chondrocyte implantationversusmatrix-induced autologous chondrocyte implantation for osteochondral defects of the knee. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British volume, 87-B(5), 640-645. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.87b5.15905Little, C. J., Bawolin, N. K., & Chen, X. (2011). Mechanical Properties of Natural Cartilage and Tissue-Engineered Constructs. Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews, 17(4), 213-227. doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2010.0572Vikingsson, L., Gallego Ferrer, G., Gómez-Tejedor, J. A., & Gómez Ribelles, J. L. (2014). An «in vitro» experimental model to predict the mechanical behavior of macroporous scaffolds implanted in articular cartilage. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 32, 125-131. doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2013.12.024Weber, J. F., & Waldman, S. D. (2014). Calcium signaling as a novel method to optimize the biosynthetic response of chondrocytes to dynamic mechanical loading. Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology, 13(6), 1387-1397. doi:10.1007/s10237-014-0580-xMauck, R. L., Soltz, M. A., Wang, C. C. B., Wong, D. D., Chao, P.-H. G., Valhmu, W. B., … Ateshian, G. A. (2000). Functional Tissue Engineering of Articular Cartilage Through Dynamic Loading of Chondrocyte-Seeded Agarose Gels. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 122(3), 252-260. doi:10.1115/1.429656Palmoski, M. J., & Brandt, K. D. (1984). Effects of static and cyclic compressive loading on articular cartilage plugs in vitro. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 27(6), 675-681. doi:10.1002/art.1780270611Khoshgoftar, M., Ito, K., & van Donkelaar, C. C. (2014). The Influence of Cell-Matrix Attachment and Matrix Development on the Micromechanical Environment of the Chondrocyte in Tissue-Engineered Cartilage. Tissue Engineering Part A, 20(23-24), 3112-3121. doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2013.0676Agrawal, C. M., & Ray, R. B. (2001). Biodegradable polymeric scaffolds for musculoskeletal tissue engineering. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 55(2), 141-150. doi:10.1002/1097-4636(200105)55:23.0.co;2-jPérez Olmedilla, M., Garcia-Giralt, N., Pradas, M. M., Ruiz, P. B., Gómez Ribelles, J. L., Palou, E. C., & García, J. C. M. (2006). Response of human chondrocytes to a non-uniform distribution of hydrophilic domains on poly (ethyl acrylate-co-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) copolymers. Biomaterials, 27(7), 1003-1012. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.07.030Horbett, T. A., & Schway, M. B. (1988). Correlations between mouse 3T3 cell spreading and serum fibronectin adsorption on glass and hydroxyethylmethacrylate-ethylmethacrylate copolymers. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 22(9), 763-793. doi:10.1002/jbm.820220903Kiremitçi, M., Peşmen, A., Pulat, M., & Gürhan, I. (1993). Relationship of Surface Characteristics to Cellular Attachment in PU and PHEMA. Journal of Biomaterials Applications, 7(3), 250-264. doi:10.1177/088532829300700304Lydon, M. ., Minett, T. ., & Tighe, B. . (1985). Cellular interactions with synthetic polymer surfaces in culture. Biomaterials, 6(6), 396-402. doi:10.1016/0142-9612(85)90100-0Campillo-Fernandez, A. J., Pastor, S., Abad-Collado, M., Bataille, L., Gomez-Ribelles, J. L., Meseguer-Dueñas, J. M., … Ruiz-Moreno, J. M. (2007). Future Design of a New Keratoprosthesis. Physical and Biological Analysis of Polymeric Substrates for Epithelial Cell Growth. Biomacromolecules, 8(8), 2429-2436. doi:10.1021/bm0703012Funayama, A., Niki, Y., Matsumoto, H., Maeno, S., Yatabe, T., Morioka, H., … Toyama, Y. (2008). Repair of full-thickness articular cartilage defects using injectable type II collagen gel embedded with cultured chondrocytes in a rabbit model. Journal of Orthopaedic Science, 13(3), 225-232. doi:10.1007/s00776-008-1220-zKitahara, S., Nakagawa, K., Sah, R. L., Wada, Y., Ogawa, T., Moriya, H., & Masuda, K. (2008). In Vivo Maturation of Scaffold-free Engineered Articular Cartilage on Hydroxyapatite. Tissue Engineering Part A, 14(11), 1905-1913. doi:10.1089/ten.tea.2006.0419Martinez-Diaz, S., Garcia-Giralt, N., Lebourg, M., Gómez-Tejedor, J.-A., Vila, G., Caceres, E., … Monllau, J. C. (2010). In Vivo Evaluation of 3-Dimensional Polycaprolactone Scaffolds for Cartilage Repair in Rabbits. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 38(3), 509-519. doi:10.1177/0363546509352448Wang, Y., Bian, Y.-Z., Wu, Q., & Chen, G.-Q. (2008). Evaluation of three-dimensional scaffolds prepared from poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) for growth of allogeneic chondrocytes for cartilage repair in rabbits. Biomaterials, 29(19), 2858-2868. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.03.021Alió del Barrio, J. L., Chiesa, M., Gallego Ferrer, G., Garagorri, N., Briz, N., Fernandez-Delgado, J., … De Miguel, M. P. (2014). Biointegration of corneal macroporous membranes based on poly(ethyl acrylate) copolymers in an experimental animal model. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 103(3), 1106-1118. doi:10.1002/jbm.a.35249Diego, R. B., Olmedilla, M. P., Aroca, A. S., Ribelles, J. L. G., Pradas, M. M., Ferrer, G. G., & Sánchez, M. S. (2005). Acrylic scaffolds with interconnected spherical pores and controlled hydrophilicity for tissue engineering. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, 16(8), 693-698. doi:10.1007/s10856-005-2604-7Serrano Aroca, A., Campillo Fernández, A. J., Gómez Ribelles, J. L., Monleón Pradas, M., Gallego Ferrer, G., & Pissis, P. (2004). Porous poly(2-hydroxyethyl acrylate) hydrogels prepared by radical polymerisation with methanol as diluent. Polymer, 45(26), 8949-8955. doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2004.10.033Diani, J., Fayolle, B., & Gilormini, P. (2009). A review on the Mullins effect. European Polymer Journal, 45(3), 601-612. doi:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2008.11.017Mullins, L. (1969). Softening of Rubber by Deformation. Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 42(1), 339-362. doi:10.5254/1.3539210Jurvelin, J. S., Buschmann, M. D., & Hunziker, E. B. (2003). Mechanical anisotropy of the human knee articular cartilage in compression. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine, 217(3), 215-219. doi:10.1243/095441103765212712Shapiro, F., Koide, S., & Glimcher, M. J. (1993). Cell origin and differentiation in the repair of full-thickness defects of articular cartilage. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, 75(4), 532-553. doi:10.2106/00004623-199304000-00009SELLERS, R. S., ZHANG, R., GLASSON, S. S., KIM, H. D., PELUSO, D., D’AUGUSTA, D. A., … MORRIS, E. A. (2000). Repair of Articular Cartilage Defects One Year After Treatment with Recombinant Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 (rhBMP-2)*. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 82(2), 151-160. doi:10.2106/00004623-200002000-00001Hunziker, E. B., Michel, M., & Studer, D. (1997). Ultrastructure of adult human articular cartilage matrix after cryotechnical processing. Microscopy Research and Technique, 37(4), 271-284. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0029(19970515)37:43.0.co;2-oAppelman, T. P., Mizrahi, J., Elisseeff, J. H., & Seliktar, D. (2009). The differential effect of scaffold composition and architecture on chondrocyte response to mechanical stimulation. Biomaterials, 30(4), 518-525. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.09.063Chung, C., & Burdick, J. A. (2008). Engineering cartilage tissue. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 60(2), 243-262. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2007.08.027HUNZIKER, E. B., & ROSENBERG, L. C. (1996). Repair of Partial-Thickness Defects in Articular Cartilage. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, 78(5), 721-33. doi:10.2106/00004623-199605000-00012Schulze-Tanzil, G. (2009). Activation and dedifferentiation of chondrocytes: Implications in cartilage injury and repair. Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger, 191(4), 325-338. doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2009.05.003Umlauf, D., Frank, S., Pap, T., & Bertrand, J. (2010). Cartilage biology, pathology, and repair. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 67(24), 4197-4211. doi:10.1007/s00018-010-0498-0Karystinou, A., Dell’Accio, F., Kurth, T. B. A., Wackerhage, H., Khan, I. M., Archer, C. W., … De Bari, C. (2009). Distinct mesenchymal progenitor cell subsets in the adult human synovium. Rheumatology, 48(9), 1057-1064. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kep192Sakaguchi, Y., Sekiya, I., Yagishita, K., & Muneta, T. (2005). Comparison of human stem cells derived from various mesenchymal tissues: Superiority of synovium as a cell source. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 52(8), 2521-2529. doi:10.1002/art.21212Schaefer, D., Martin, I., Jundt, G., Seidel, J., Heberer, M., Grodzinsky, A., … Freed, L. E. (2002). Tissue-engineered composites for the repair of large osteochondral defects. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 46(9), 2524-2534. doi:10.1002/art.1049