The application of warfare ecology to belligerent occupations

Insofar as warfare ecology aims to examine all war-related conditions, belligerent occupations are a necessary stage in its broad taxonomy. Under international law, belligerent occupations are covered by a distinctive subset of jus in bello (humanitarian law), which is imprecise regarding ecological changes. This chapter examines the potential role of warfare ecology in studying belligerent occupations, highlighting the multiple, often indirect, means by which such occupations shape ecological processes. Particular attention is paid to the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory, due to its protracted duration, although also discussed are environmental effects associated with the US and UK occupation of Iraq. The onus on the occupying power, under international humanitarian law, to protect the conditions of life for civilians can plausibly be applied to the environmental resources of the resident population. It is argued that warfare ecology can make a significant contribution both to assessing the effects of occupations and, through the generation of policy advice, to promote conflict outcomes more sensitive towards ecological processes

Green Consumption: Behavior and Norms

Developing more environmentally sustainable consumption and production systems depends upon consumers' willingness to engage in “greener” consumption behaviors. Research efforts have sought to identify, analyze, and understand the “green consumer.” Initial marketing and economics research, focusing on purchasing activities, has been complemented by research from fields such as industrial ecology and sociology, providing a more holistic picture of green consumption as a process. Much of the research has focused on areas with the greatest environmental impacts, namely peoples' homes and household management, their food choices and behaviors, and their transport behaviors for work, leisure, and travel. The emerging picture of green consumption is of a process that is strongly influenced by consumer values, norms, and habits, yet is highly complex, diverse, and context dependent. There are opportunities for future research that provides greater interdisciplinarity and challenges our assumptions and expectations about consumption and the nature of the consumer society