Diversity and efficacy of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi isolated from soils of soybean fields

A field survey evaluated the population composition of AM fungal species in Clarion (a well drained fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludoll) and Webster (a poorly drained fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Endoaquoll) soils of four Iowa soybean (Glycine max, L.) fields. Spores from six species of Glomus and from the genera Acaulospora, Gigaspora , and Paragomus were found in the original field soils. G. claroideum, G. etunicatum, G. mosseae, G. viscosum, and Paraglomus occultum-like spores were prevalent in both Clarion and Webster soils of all four fields. Minor species included G. geosporum and G. intraradices. Trap cultures led to detection of several additional AM fungal species, including G. clarum, G. constrictum, G. fasciculatum, and Entrophospora infrequens;The selectivity of four soybean cultivars, BSR201, Iowa2052, Mandarin, and Peking, for AM fungi was assessed in pots inoculated with composite soil samples from Clarion and Webster soils. A total of 12 morphotypes of AM fungal species were identified. Pots of Iowa2052 soybean cultivar harbored all 12 AM fungal species. Spores of E. infrequens were found uniquely in Iowa2052 pots. Peking had only 8 different types of AM fungi. G. claroideum produced a high proportion of the spore population in pots of BSR201 (up to 75%), but this species was low in Peking (2 to 12%) when the inocula were derived from Webster soils;Soybean cultivars BSR201, Iowa2052, and Peking inoculated with five strains of G. claroideum, two strains of G. etunicatum, and one strain of G. mosseae obtained from Clarion and Webster soils of two Iowa fields produced significantly higher shoot dry weights and seed numbers per pot than those that were nonmycorrhizal. The efficacy of the isolates on the growth of inoculated 10-wk-old plants depended on both the host cultivar and the infecting AM fungal strain. Isolates of G. claroideum and G. etunicatum originally from Clarion soils typically increased shoot dry weight more than did the isolates of either G. etunicatum or G. mosseae from Webster soil. Isolates of G. claroideum and G. etunicatum generated higher dry weight in Peking plants than in the plants of the other two cultivars

Agronomic Management of Indigenous Mycorrhizas

Many of the advantages conferred to plants by arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) are associated to the ability of AM plants to explore a greater volume of soil through the extraradical mycelium. Sieverding (1991) estimates that for each centimetre of colonized root there is an increase of 15 cm3 on the volume of soil explored, this value can increase to 200 cm3 depending on the circumstances. Due to the enhancement of the volume of soil explored and the ability of the extraradical mycelium to absorb and translocate nutrients to the plant, one of the most obvious and important advantages resulting from mycorrhization is the uptake of nutrients. Among of which the ones that have immobilized forms in soil, such as P, assume particular significance. Besides this, many other benefits are recognized for AM plants (Gupta et al, 2000): water stress alleviation (Augé, 2004; Cho et al, 2006), protection from root pathogens (Graham, 2001), tolerance to toxic heavy metals and phytoremediation (Audet and Charest, 2006; Göhre and Paszkowski, 2006), tolerance to adverse conditions such as very high or low temperature, high salinity (Sannazzaro et al, 2006), high or low pH (Yano and Takaki, 2005) or better performance during transplantation shock (Subhan et al, 1998). The extraradical hyphae also stabilize soil aggregates by both enmeshing soil particles (Miller e Jastrow, 1992) and producing a glycoprotein, golmalin, which may act as a glue-like substance to adhere soil particles together (Wright and Upadhyaya, 1998). Despite the ubiquous distribution of mycorrhizal fungi (Smith and Read, 2000) and only a relative specificity between host plants and fungal isolates (McGonigle and Fitter, 1990), the obligate nature of the symbiosis implies the establishment of a plant propagation system, either under greenhouse conditions or in vitro laboratory propagation. These techniques result in high inoculum production costs, which still remains a serious problem since they are not competitive with production costs of phosphorus fertilizer. Even if farmers understand the significance of sustainable agricultural systems, the reduction of phosphorus inputs by using AM fungal inocula alone cannot be justified except, perhaps, in the case of high value crops (Saioto and Marumoto, 2002). Nurseries, high income horticulture farmers and no-agricultural application such as rehabilitation of degraded or devegetated landscapes are examples of areas where the use of commercial inoculum is current. Another serious problem is quality of commercial available products concerning guarantee of phatogene free content, storage conditions, most effective application methods and what types to use. Besides the information provided by suppliers about its inoculum can be deceiving, as from the usually referred total counts, only a fraction may be effective for a particular plant or in specific soil conditions. Gianinazzi and Vosátka (2004) assume that progress should be made towards registration procedures that stimulate the development of the mycorrhizal industry. Some on-farm inoculum production and application methods have been studied, allowing farmers to produce locally adapted isolates and generate a taxonomically diverse inoculum (Mohandas et al, 2004; Douds et al, 2005). However the inocula produced this way are not readily processed for mechanical application to the fields, being an obstacle to the utilization in large scale agriculture, especially row crops, moreover it would represent an additional mechanical operation with the corresponding economic and soil compaction costs. It is well recognized that inoculation of AM fungi has a potential significance in not only sustainable crop production, but also environmental conservation. However, the status quo of inoculation is far from practical technology that can be widely used in the field. Together a further basic understanding of the biology and diversity of AM fungi is needed (Abbott at al, 1995; Saito and Marumoto, 2002). Advances in ecology during the past decade have led to a much more detailed understanding of the potential negative consequences of species introductions and the potential for negative ecological consequences of invasions by mycorrhizal fungi is poorly understood. Schwartz et al, (2006) recommend that a careful assessment documenting the need for inoculation, and the likelihood of success, should be conducted prior to inoculation because inoculations are not universally beneficial. Agricultural practices such as crop rotation, tillage, weed control and fertilizer apllication all produce changes in the chemical, physical and biological soil variables and affect the ecological niches available for occupancy by the soil biota, influencing in different ways the symbiosis performance and consequently the inoculum development, shaping changes and upset balance of native populations. The molecular biology tools developed in the latest years have been very important for our perception of these changes, ensuing awareness of management choice implications in AM development. In this context, for extensive farming systems and regarding environmental and economic costs, the identification of agronomic management practices that allow controlled manipulation of the fungal community and capitalization of AM mutualistic effect making use of local inoculum, seem to be a wise option for mycorrhiza promotion and development of sustainable crop production

Soil cover plants on water erosion control in the South of Minas Gerais

Water erosion is responsible for soil, water, carbon and nutrient losses, turning into the most important type of degradation of Brazilian soils. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of three cover plants under two tillage systems on water erosion control in an Argisol at south of Minas Gerais state, Brazil. The cover plants utilized in the study were pigeon pea, jack bean and millet, under contour seeding and downslope tillage. Experimental plots of 4 x 12 m, with 9% slope, under natural rainfall were used for the quantification of losses of soil, water, nutrients, and organic matter. One experimental plot was kept without plant cover (reference). Higher erosivity was observed in December and January, although a great quantity of erosive rainfall was detected during the whole raining period. Contour seeding provided a greater reduction of water erosion than downslope tillage, as expected. The jack bean under contour seeding revealed the lowest values of soil, water, nutrients and organic matter losses