STRUCTURE GENETIQUE DES POPULATIONS D’ANOPHELES NILI S.S VECTEUR DU PALUDISME EN MILIEU RURAL ET PERIURBAIN DE COTE D’IVOIRE

In Côte d’Ivoire, the Anopheles nili s.s species plays an important role in malaria transmission. However, the transmission of malaria by the populations of An. nili s.s in different regions of Côte d’Ivoire exhibits heterogeneous patterns. The study was initiated to find out whether the diversity of malaria vectorial transmission with An. nili s.s from different regions was linked to a heterogeneity of these species populations in Côte d’Ivoire. To better conduct this study, 134 individuals of An. nili s.s mosquitoes were obtained from a human landing collection and a study on the structure of the populations was carried out by isoenzyme analysis of 7 loci (IDH1, IDH2, PGI, GOT, ME, MDH, PGM). The study sites include Ganse (rural, shrubby savannah), Gbatta, Gouliako (rural, forest zone), Nambekaha (rural, Sudanian savannah), and Kpehiri (peri-urban, forest zone). The An. nilis.s populations in Côte d’Ivoire have on average 1.5 to2.5 alleles per locu and were at Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. The comparison of the populations shows over the 7 loci, no significant difference between the pairs of populations. The comparison of the An. nili s.s populations from Kpehiri to that of Ganse shows over all loci a significant difference (Fst = 0,1086 ; P= 0,0147). The structure of the An. nili s.s populations in Côte d’Ivoire is not linked to the distribution of the large vegetal groups (forest, shrubby savannah Sudanian savannah). Yet, there is a difference between the Ganse population, in a rural zone, located close to the Comoe National Park and that of Kpehiri in the peri-urban area

Genetic Diversity of Simulium damnosum complex Onchocerciasis Vector and its Influence on Entomological Monitoring in the West of Côte d'Ivoire

In West Africa, Onchocerca volvulus, the causative pathogen of human onchocerciasis, is transmitted by sibling species of the Simulium damnosum complex. Little is known about blackfly intraspecific variability and its consequences on vectorial capacity in Côte d’Ivoire. This study reports the use of microsatellite markers to study the genetic profile and evaluate the gene flow between populations of S. damnosum s.l from three (3) different epidemiological facies in western Côte d’Ivoire, fifteen years after the end of onchocerciasis control program. Adult flies were collected on human attractants from 07 : 00 to 18 : 00 hours for three consecutive days by site, from December 2016 to October 2017. Four (4) microsatellite loci were used to characterize individuals from these populations. The four (4) loci were polymorphic with 13.25 alleles per locus. Two (2) specific alleles (190 bp and 290 bp), were reveal abundant with respective frequencies of 0.46 % and 0.58 %. Asignificant heterozygosity deficiency and low genetic differentiation (FST = 0.046, P = 0.024) have been observed for all the populations. The genetic analysis showed significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg and significant heterozygosity deficiencies. Then, the great interspecific variability would be a general characteristic in S. damnosum s.l. At last, a probable evolution of the invasive strains of S. damnosum would have occurred in these localities. This study has shown significant deviation from Hardy-Weinberg and significant heterozygosity deficiencies in the populations of the three localities. The loci give independent estimate genetic parameters. The H3-4 locus to a low genetic differentiation between the populations. &nbsp

CHRISTIAN MISSIONS AND COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA: OBJECTIVE AND CONTEMPORARY ANALYSIS

The purpose of this paper is to determine the correlation between the nineteenth century missionary enterprise and colonial occupation of Africa. European missionaries entered Africa simultaneously at the very beginning of colonial conquest and domination of Africa. What was the relationship between missionaries, traders and administrators in the colonial era? What can we identify as the predetermined objective of colonialism vis-a-vis missions in Africa? These are some of the questions that the present study will attempt to answer from the perspective of the historiography of European expansion in Africa

The current insecticide resistance status of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) (Culicidae) in rural and urban areas of Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire

Abstract Background Several studies were carried out in experimental hut station in areas surrounding the city of Bouaké, after the crisis in Côte d’Ivoire. They reported increasing resistance levels to insecticide for malaria transmiting mosquitoes. The present work aims to evaluate the current resistance level of An. gambiae ( s.l.) in rural and urban areas in the city of Bouaké. Methods Larvae of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) were collected from five different study sites and reared to adult stages. The resistance status was assessed using the WHO bioassay test kits for adult mosquitoes, with eight insecticides belonging to pyrethroids, organochlorines, carbamates and organophosphates classes. Molecular assays were performed to identify the molecular forms of An. gambiae (s.l.), the L1014F kdr and the ace-1R alleles in individual mosquitoes. The synergist PBO was used to investigate the role of enzymes in resistance. Biochemical assays were performed to detect potential increased activities in mixed function oxidase (MFO) levels, non-specific esterases (NSE) and glutathione S-transferases (GST). Results High resistance levels to pyrethroids, organochlorines, and carbamates were observed in Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) from Bouaké. Mortalities ranged between 0 and 73% for the eight tested insecticides. The pre-exposure to PBO restored full or partial susceptibility to pyrethroids in the different sites. The same trend was observed with the carbamates in five sites, but to a lesser extent. With DDT, pre-exposure to PBO did not increase the mortality rate of An. gambiae (s.l.) from the same sites. Tolerance to organophosphates was observed. An increased activity of NSE and higher level of MFO were found compared to the Kisumu susceptible reference strain. Two molecular forms, S form [(An. gambiae (s.s)] and M form (An. coluzzi) were identified. The kdr allele frequencies vary from 85.9 to 99.8% for An. gambiae (s.s.) and from 81.7 to 99.6% for An. coluzzii. The ace-1R frequencies vary between 25.6 and 38.8% for An. gambiae (s.s.) and from 28.6 to 36.7% for An. coluzzii. Conclusion Resistance to insecticides is widespread within both An. gambiae (s.s.) and An. coluzzii. Two mechanisms of resistance, i.e. metabolic and target-site mutation seemed to largely explain the high resistance level of mosquitoes in Bouaké. Pyrethroid resistance was found exclusively due to the metabolic mechanism