Acute Inflammation Alters Brain Energy Metabolism in Mice and Humans: Role in Suppressed Spontaneous Activity, Impaired Cognition, and Delirium

Systemic infection triggers a spectrum of metabolic and behavioral changes, collectively termed sickness behavior, which while adaptive, can affect mood and cognition. In vulnerable individuals, acute illness can also produce profound, maladaptive, cognitive dysfunction including delirium, but our understanding of delirium pathophysiology remains limited. Here, we used bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in female C57BL/6J mice and acute hip fracture in humans to address whether disrupted energy metabolism contributes to inflammation-induced behavioral and cognitive changes. LPS (250 µg/kg) induced hypoglycemia, which was mimicked by interleukin (IL)-1β (25 µg/kg) but not prevented in IL-1RI-/- mice, nor by IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA; 10 mg/kg). LPS suppression of locomotor activity correlated with blood glucose concentrations, was mitigated by exogenous glucose (2 g/kg), and was exacerbated by 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) glycolytic inhibition, despite preventing IL-1β synthesis. Using the ME7 model of chronic neurodegeneration in female mice, to examine vulnerability of the diseased brain to acute stressors, we showed that LPS (100 µg/kg) produced acute cognitive dysfunction, selectively in those animals. These acute cognitive impairments were mimicked by insulin (11.5 IU/kg) and mitigated by glucose, demonstrating that acutely reduced glucose metabolism impairs cognition selectively in the vulnerable brain. To test whether these acute changes might predict altered carbohydrate metabolism during delirium, we assessed glycolytic metabolite levels in CSF in humans during inflammatory trauma-induced delirium. Hip fracture patients showed elevated CSF lactate and pyruvate during delirium, consistent with acutely altered brain energy metabolism. Collectively, the data suggest that disruption of energy metabolism drives behavioral and cognitive consequences of acute systemic inflammation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Acute systemic inflammation alters behavior and produces disproportionate effects, such as delirium, in vulnerable individuals. Delirium has serious short and long-term sequelae but mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we show that both LPS and interleukin (IL)-1β trigger hypoglycemia, reduce CSF glucose, and suppress spontaneous activity. Exogenous glucose mitigates these outcomes. Equivalent hypoglycemia, induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or insulin, was sufficient to trigger cognitive impairment selectively in animals with existing neurodegeneration and glucose also mitigated those impairments. Patient CSF from inflammatory trauma-induced delirium also shows altered brain carbohydrate metabolism. The data suggest that the degenerating brain is exquisitely sensitive to acute behavioral and cognitive consequences of disrupted energy metabolism. Thus "bioenergetic stress" drives systemic inflammation-induced dysfunction. Elucidating this may offer routes to mitigating delirium

Estudo da proteína S100B em resposta a estímulo inflamatório central ou periférico

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Estresse imunológico induzido por LPS como agente modulador da memória e atividade locomotora de roedores

O comportamento-doente e outros efeitos associados a intoxicação pelo lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) tem sido amplamente investigado por diversos campos da ciência contemporânea. Essa macromolécula bacteriana é capaz de ativar o sistema imunitário (SI) inato e gerar mecanismos adaptativos inflamatórios. Os mecanismos inflamatórios humorais e teciduais, tanto periféricos quanto centrais, estão envolvidos com diversas condições neuropsiquiátricas e representam uma importante condição para etiologia e patogênese destas desordens. O trabalho a seguir aborda alguns aspectos comportamentais e bioquímicos de ratos ou camundongos, quando injetados com LPS sistemicamente. Utilizou-se administrações agudas ou múltiplas e tarefas de avaliações comportamentais de memórias aversivas e espaciais, bem como sensibilização locomotora. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o LPS induziu aumento das latências de teste da esquiva inibitória, que não foram observados nos grupos controle. Em outro experimento utilizando LPS e exercício físico forçado, no labirinto aquático de Morris os animais tratados somente com LPS apresentaram melhor desempenho após reativação de memória remota. Posteriormente não foi observado ansiedade ou déficit de memória. Foram observadas alterações significativas da S100B no líquido cefalorraquidiano de animais tratados com LPS. No soro essas diferenças foram sutis e não puderam discriminar os grupos. A corticosterona plasmática estava alterada nos animais com melhores desempenhos cognitivos. Noutro experimento, utilizando a sensibilização locomotora o LPS foi capaz de promover a expressão desse comportamento quando administrado com uma dose não sensibilizatória de cocaína. As conclusões apontam para o papel facilitador do LPS em tarefas de memória e sensibilização locomotora. Os possíveis mecanismos envolvidos devem estar relacionados com a ativação do eixo-HPA e outros mecanismos neuroimunológicos. Os paralelos traçados vão nas direções da comorbidade existente entre depressão e dependência química. E o autor busca discutir uma possível relação da bases neuroimunobiológicas com pensamentos cognitivistas.Sickness behavior and other effects induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) have been widely used in contemporary neuroscience. This molecule triggers innate immune responses as inflammation, that has been reported to be involved with depression and others neuropsychiatric conditions. The main question of this thesis is about behavioral aspects of rats and mice treated with LPS, and possible relations between depression and addiction. In rats, a single LPS administration facilitated inhibitory avoidance (IA) memory retention but it did not changed serum or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) S100B levels. The multiple LPS administration improved memory in the Morris water maze task (MWM) during the second testing, which occurred 24 hours after retraining. They also equally increased plasma corticosterone levels. CSF but not serum levels of S100B were increased by both LPS doses. In other experiment, LPS and cocaine were administered intraperitonealy in young-adult male C57bl/6 mice during a 5-day acquisition phase. After a 48-h withdrawal period all groups were challenged with cocaine to evaluate locomotor expression. During the acquisition phase, the LPS-treated groups displayed characteristic hypolocomotion related to sickness behavior. The low dose of cocaine did not increase the distance travelled, characterizing a nonsensitization dose. Groups that received both LPS and cocaine did not display hypolocomotion, indicating that cocaine might counteract hypolocomotion sickness behavior. Moreover, during challenge, only these animals expressed locomotor sensitization. Thus, LPS can induce memory retention and locomotor sensitization. The mechanisms involved in this data may be stress system and other neuroimmunological interactions

Changes in astroglial markers in a maternal immune activation model of schizophrenia in wistar rats are dependent on sex

Data from epidemiological studies suggest that prenatal exposure to bacterial and viral infection is an important environmental risk factor for schizophrenia. The maternal immune activation (MIA) animal model is used to study how an insult directed at the maternal host can have adverse effects on the fetus, leading to behavioral and neurochemical changes later in life. We evaluated whether the administration of LPS to rat dams during late pregnancy affects astroglial markers (S100B and GFAP) of the offspring in later life. The frontal cortex and hippocampus were compared in male and female offspring on postnatal days (PND) 30 and 60. The S100B protein exhibited an age-dependent pattern of expression, being increased in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of the MIA group at PND 60, while at PND 30, male rats presented increased S100B levels only in the frontal cortex. Considering that S100B secretion is reduced by elevation of glutamate levels, we may hypothesize that this early increment in frontal cortex tissue of males is associated with elevated extracellular levels of glutamate and glutamatergic hypofunction, an alteration commonly associated with SCZ pathology. Moreover, we also found augmented GFAP in the frontal cortex of the LPS group at PND 30, but not in the hippocampus. Taken together data indicate that astroglial changes induced by MIA are dependent on sex and brain region and that these changes could reflect astroglial dysfunction. Such alterations may contribute to our understanding of the abnormal neuronal connectivity and developmental aspects of SCZ and other psychiatric disorders

Cocaine counteracts LPS-induced hypolocomotion and triggers locomotor sensitization expression

Neuroimmune signalling underlies addiction and comorbid depression. Clinical observations indicate that infections and chronic lesions are more frequent in drug users and elevated inflammatory states are evident in cocaine dependents. Therefore, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and inflammatory cytokines represent an important tool for the investigation of sickness, depressive illness and addiction behaviour. A major component of addiction is the progressive and persistent increase in locomotor activity after repeated drug administration and even prolonged periods of abstinence. the aim of this study was to investigate the response of locomotor sensitization when a non-sensitizing dose of cocaine is paired with a systemic inflammatory stimulus. LPS and cocaine were administered intraperitonealy in young-adult male C57b1/6 mice during a 5-day acquisition phase. After a 48-h withdrawal period all groups were challenged with cocaine to evaluate locomotor expression. During the acquisition phase, the LPS-treated groups displayed characteristic hypolocomotion related to sickness behaviour. the low dose of cocaine did not increase the distance travelled, characterizing a non-sensitization dose. Groups that received both LPS and cocaine did not display hypolocomotion, indicating that cocaine might counteract hypolocomotion sickness behaviour. Moreover, during challenge, only these animals expressed locomotor sensitization. Our results indicate that LPS could facilitate the expression of locomotor sensitization in mice and that the immune system may modulate cocaine-induced sensitization. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)INCT-National Institute of Science and Technology for Excitotoxicity and NeuroprotectionUniv Fed Rio Grande do Sul, Dept Biochem, Porto Alegre, RS, BrazilUniversidade Federal de São Paulo, Neurobiol Lab, São Paulo, BrazilUniversidade Federal de São Paulo, Neurol & Neurosci Grad Program, São Paulo, BrazilSanta Casa Sch Med Sci, Dept Physiol Sci, São Paulo, BrazilUniversidade Federal de São Paulo, Neurobiol Lab, São Paulo, BrazilUniversidade Federal de São Paulo, Neurol & Neurosci Grad Program, São Paulo, BrazilFAPESP: FAPESP-2009/16305-0Web of Scienc

Exendin-4 reverses biochemical and functional alterations in the blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers in diabetic rats

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder associated with micro- and macrovascular alterations that contribute to the cognitive impairment observed in diabetic patients. Signs of breakdown of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and the blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) have been found in patients and animal models of DM. Breakdown of the BBB and BCSFB can lead to disruptions in cerebral homeostasis and eventually neural dysfunction and degeneration. However, our understanding of the biochemistry underlying barrier protein modifications is incomplete. Herein, we evaluated changes in the levels of specific proteins in the BBB (occludin, claudin-5, ZO-1, and aquaporin-4) and BCSFB (claudin-2 and aquaporin-1) in the hippocampus of diabetic rats, and we also investigated the functional alterations in these barriers. In addition, we evaluated the ability of exendin-4 (EX-4), a glucagon-like peptide-1 agonist that can cross the BBB to reverse the functional and biochemical modifications observed in these animals. We observed a decrease in BBB proteins (except ZO-1) in diabetic rats, whereas the EX-4 treatment recovered the occludin and aquaporin-4 levels. Similarly, we observed a decrease in BCSFB proteins in diabetic rats, whereas EX-4 reversed such changes. EX-4 also reversed alterations in the permeability of the BBB and BCSFB in diabetic rats. Additionally, altered cognitive parameters in diabetic rats were improved by EX-4. These data further our understanding of the alterations in the central nervous system caused by DM, particularly changes in the proteins and permeability of the brain barriers, as well as cognitive dysfunction. Furthermore, these data suggest a role for EX-4 in therapeutic strategies for cognitive dysfunction in DM

Striatal Injury with 6-OHDA Transiently Increases Cerebrospinal GFAP and S100B

Both glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and S100B have been used as markers of astroglial plasticity, particularly in brain injury; however, they do not necessarily change in the same time frame or direction. Herein, we induced a Parkinson’s disease (PD) model via a 6-OHDA intrastriatal injection in rats and investigated the changes in GFAP and S100B using ELISA in the substantia nigra (SN), striatum, and cerebrospinal fluid on the 1st, 7th, and 21st days following the injection. The model was validated using measurements of rotational behaviour induced by methylphenidate and tyrosine hydroxylase in the dopaminergic pathway. To our knowledge, this is the first measurement of cerebrospinal fluid S100B and GFAP in the 6-OHDA model of PD. Gliosis (based on a GFAP increase) was identified in the striatum, but not in the SN. We identified a transitory increment of cerebrospinal fluid S100B and GFAP on the 1st and 7th days, respectively. This initial change in cerebrospinal fluid S100B was apparently related to the mechanical lesion. However, the 6-OHDA-induced S100B secretion was confirmed in astrocyte cultures. Current data reinforce the idea that glial changes precede neuronal damage in PD; however, these findings also indicate that caution is necessary regarding the interpretation of data in this PD model

Cocaine counteracts LPS-induced hypolocomotion and triggers locomotor sensitization expression

Neuroimmune signalling underlies addiction and comorbid depression. Clinical observations indicate that infections and chronic lesions are more frequent in drug users and elevated inflammatory states are evident in cocaine dependents. Therefore, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and inflammatory cytokines represent an important tool for the investigation of sickness, depressive illness and addiction behaviour. A major component of addiction is the progressive and persistent increase in locomotor activity after repeated drug administration and even prolonged periods of abstinence. The aim of this study was to investigate the response of locomotor sensitization when a non-sensitizing dose of cocaine is paired with a systemic inflammatory stimulus. LPS and cocaine were administered intraperitonealy in young-adult male C57bl/6 mice during a 5-day acquisition phase. After a 48-h withdrawal period all groups were challenged with cocaine to evaluate locomotor expression. During the acquisition phase, the LPS-treated groups displayed characteristic hypolocomotion related to sickness behaviour. The low dose of cocaine did not increase the distance travelled, characterizing a non-sensitization dose. Groups that received both LPS and cocaine did not display hypolocomotion, indicating that cocaine might counteract hypolocomotion sickness behaviour. Moreover, during challenge, only these animals expressed locomotor sensitization. Our results indicate that LPS could facilitate the expression of locomotor sensitization in mice and that the immune system may modulate cocaine-induced sensitization