Maternal consumption of a high-fat diet modulates the inflammatory response in their offspring, mediated by the M1 muscarinic receptor

IntroductionHigh-fat diet (HFD) consumption is associated with various metabolic disorders and diseases. Both pre-pregnancy and maternal obesity can have long-term consequences on offspring health. Furthermore, consuming an HFD in adulthood significantly increases the risk of obesity and metabolic disorders. However, an intriguing phenomenon known as the obesity paradox suggests that obesity may confer a protective effect on mortality outcomes in sepsis. In sepsis, activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP) can help mitigate systemic inflammation. We employed a metabolic programming model to explore the relationship between maternal HFD consumption and offspring response to sepsis.MethodsWe fed female mice either a standard diet (SC) or an HFD during the pre-pregnancy, pregnancy, and lactation periods. Subsequently, we evaluated 28-day-old male offspring. ResultsNotably, we discovered that offspring from HFD-fed dams (HFD-O) exhibited a higher survival rate compared with offspring from SC-fed dams (SC-O). Importantly, inhibition of the m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (m1mAChR), involved in the CAP, in the hypothalamus abolished this protection. The expression of m1mAChR in the hypothalamus was higher in HFD-O at different ages, peaking on day 28. Treatment with an m1mAChR agonist could modulate the inflammatory response in peripheral tissues. Specifically, CAP activation was greater in the liver of HFD-O following agonist treatment. Interestingly, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge failed to induce a more inflammatory state in HFD-O, in contrast to SC-O, and agonist treatment had no additional effect. Analysis of spleen immune cells revealed a distinct phenotype in HFD-O, characterized by elevated levels of CD4+ lymphocytes rather than CD8+ lymphocytes. Moreover, basal Il17 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels were lower while Il22 mRNA levels were higher in HFD-O, and we observed the same pattern after LPS challenge. DiscussionFurther examination of myeloid cells isolated from bone marrow and allowed to differentiate showed that HFD-O macrophages displayed an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Additionally, treatment with the m1mAChR agonist contributed to reducing inflammatory marker levels in both groups. In summary, our findings demonstrate that HFD-O are protected against LPS-induced sepsis, and this protection is mediated by the central m1mAChR. Moreover, the inflammatory response in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow-differentiated macrophages is diminished. However, more extensive analysis is necessary to elucidate the specific mechanisms by which m1mAChR modulates the immune response during sepsis

Short-Term High-Fat Diet Consumption Reduces Hypothalamic Expression of the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor α7 Subunit (α7nAChR) and Affects the Anti-inflammatory Response in a Mouse Model of Sepsis

Sepsis is one of the leading causes of death in hospitalized patients and the chronic and low-grade inflammation observed in obesity seems to worsen susceptibility and morbidity of infections. However, little is known with respect to a short-term high-fat diet (HFD) and its role in the development of sepsis. Here, we show for the first time, that short-term HFD consumption impairs early nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α7 subunit (α7nAChR)- mediated signaling, one of the major components of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, with a focus on hypothalamic inflammation and innate immune response. Mice were randomized to a HFD or standard chow (SC) for 3 days, and sepsis was subsequently induced by a lethal intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) surgery. In a separate experiment, both groups received LPS (i.p.) or LPS (i.p.) in conjunction with the selective α7nAChR agonist, PNU-282987 (i.p. or intracerebroventricular; i.c.v.), and were sacrificed 2 h after the challenge. Short-term HFD consumption significantly reduced the α7nAChR mRNA and protein levels in the hypothalamus and liver (p < 0.05). Immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated lower cholinergic receptor nicotinic α7 subunit (α7nAChR)+ cells in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) (α7nAChR+ cells in SC = 216 and HFD = 84) and increased F4/80+ cells in the ARC (2.6-fold) and median eminence (ME) (1.6-fold), which can contribute to neuronal damage. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ cells and neuronal nuclear antigen (NeuN)+ cells were also increased following consumption of HFD. The HFD-fed mice died quickly after a lethal dose of LPS or following CLP surgery (2-fold compared with SC). The LPS challenge raised most cytokine levels in both groups; however, higher levels of TNF-α (Spleen and liver), IL-1β and IL-6 (in all tissues evaluated) were observed in HFD-fed mice. Moreover, PNU-282987 administration (i.p. or i.c.v.) reduced the levels of inflammatory markers in the hypothalamus following LPS injection. Nevertheless, when the i.c.v. injection of PNU-282987 was performed the anti-inflammatory effect was much smaller in HFD-fed mice than SC-fed mice. Here, we provide evidence that a short-term HFD impairs early α7nAChR expression in central and peripheral tissues, contributing to a higher probability of death in sepsis

JAK2/STAT3 pathway is required for α7nAChR-dependent expression of POMC and AGRP neuropeptides in male mice

Cholinergic signalling mediated by the activation of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors has been described in the literature as a classic and important signalling pathway in the regulation of the inflammatory response. Recent research has investigated the role of acetylcholine, the physiological agonist of these receptors, in the control of energy homeostasis at the central level. Studies have shown that mice that do not express acetylcholine in brain regions regulating energy homeostasis present with excessive weight gain and hyperphagia. However, it has not yet been well-described in the literature which cholinergic receptor subunits are involved in this response; moreover, the signalling pathways responsible for the observed effects are not fully delineated. The hypothalamus is the regulating centre of energy homeostasis, and the α7 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) is highly expressed in this region. When active, α7nAChR recruits proteins such as JAK2/STAT3 to mediate its signalling; the same intracellular components are required by leptin, an anorexigenic hormone. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the role of the hypothalamic α7nAChR in the control of energy homeostasis. Methods: The work was performed on Swiss male mice. Initially, using immunofluorescent staining on brain sections, the presence of α7nAChR in hypothalamic cells regulating energy homeostasis was evaluated. Animals were submitted to stereotaxis in the lateral ventricle and intracerebroventricular stimulation (ICV) was used for the administration of an agonist (PNU) or antagonist (α-bungarotoxin) of α7nAChR. Metabolic parameters were evaluated and the expression of neuropeptides was evaluated in the hypothalamus by real-time PCR and western blot. The expression of hypothalamic neuropeptides was evaluated in mice treated with siRNA or inhibitors of JAK2/STAT3 (AG490 and STATTIC) proteins. We also evaluated food intake in α7nAChR knockout animals (α7KO). Additionally, in mouse hypothalamic cell culture (the mypHoA-POMC/GFP lineage), we evaluated the expression of neuropeptides and pSTAT3 after stimulation with PNU. Results: Our results indicate co-localisation of α7nAChR with α-MSH, AgRP and NPY in hypothalamic cells. Pharmacological activation of α7nAChR reduced food intake and increased hypothalamic POMC expression and decreased NPY and AgRP mRNA levels and the protein content of pAMPK. Inhibition of α7nAChR with an antagonist increased the mRNA content of NPY and AgRP. Inhibition of α7nAChR with siRNA led to the suppression of POMC expression and an increase in AgRP mRNA levels. α7KO mice showed no changes in food intake. Inhibition of proteins involved in the JAK2/STAT3 signalling pathway reversed the effects observed after PNU stimulation. POMC-GFP cells, when treated with PNU, showed increased POMC expression and nuclear translocation of pSTAT3. Conclusion: Thus, selective activation of α7nAChR is able to modulate important markers of the response to food intake, suggesting that α7nAChR activation can suppress the expression of orexigenic markers and favour the expression of anorexics using the intracellular JAK2/STAT3 machinery534701712COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DE PESSOAL DE NÍVEL SUPERIOR - CAPESFUNDAÇÃO DE AMPARO À PESQUISA DO ESTADO DE SÃO PAULO - FAPESPNão tem16/23484-1; 18/01863-6This work was supported by grants from the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) and São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) (grant # 16/23484-1 and # 18/01863-6). The authors Adriana Souza Torsoni, Leticia M. Ignacio-Souza, Marciane Milanski, and Marcio Alberto Torsoni are affiliated with the Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center (OCRC) of the Sao Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). Animal experiments conform to internationally accepted standards and have been approved by the appropriate institutional review body. Souza CM performed all the experiments of the article, analyzed the data as well as wrote the introduction, methodology, subtitles and summary of the article. Amaral CL, contributed to the cell culture experiment and the revision of the writing of the introduction and methodology and summary of the article. Costa SO and Souza ACP assisted in animal care and surgical procedures. Martins ICA and Contieri LS, assisted in the experiment with siRNA. Milanski M, Torsoni AS, and Ignacio-Souza LM participated in the textual revision of the article. Torsoni MA guided all the experiments and wrote the results and discussion of the article, as well as revised the entire manuscrip

Introduction and Research Roadmap: Writing and Text Production

2013/05691-1Maternal high-fat diet (HFD) impairs hippocampal development of offspring promoting decreased proliferation of neural progenitors, in neuronal differentiation, in dendritic spine density and synaptic plasticity reducing neurogenic capacity. Notch signaling pathway participates in molecular mechanisms of the neurogenesis. The activation of Notch signaling leads to the upregulation of Hes5, which inhibits the proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitors. This study aimed to investigate the Notch/Hes pathway activation in the hippocampus of the offspring of dams fed an HFD. Female Swiss mice were fed a control diet (CD) and an HFD from pre-mating until suckling. The bodyweight and mass of adipose tissue in the mothers and pups were also measured. The mRNA and protein expression of Notch1, Hes5, Mash1, and Delta1 in the hippocampus was assessed by RT-PCR and western blotting, respectively. Dams fed the HFD and their pups had an increased bodyweight and amount of adipose tissue. Furthermore, the offspring of mothers fed the HFD exhibited an increased Hes5 expression in the hippocampus compared with CD offspring. In addition, HFD offspring also expressed increased amounts of Notch1 and Hes5 mRNA, whereas Mash1 expression was decreased. However, the expression of Delta1 did not change significantly. We propose that the overexpression of Hes5, a Notch effector, downregulates the expression of the proneural gene Mash1 in the offspring of obese mothers, delaying cellular differentiation. These results provide further evidence that an offspring's hippocampus is molecularly susceptible to maternal HFD and suggest that Notch1 signaling in this brain region is important for neuronal differentiation.Maternal high-fat diet (HFD) impairs hippocampal development of offspring promoting decreased prolif-neuralprogenitors,inneuronaldifferentiation,indendriticspinedensityandsynapticplasticityreducing neurogenic capacity. Notch signaling pathway participates403542FAPESP - FUNDAÇÃO DE AMPARO À PESQUISA DO ESTADO DE SÃO PAULOFAPESP - FUNDAÇÃO DE AMPARO À PESQUISA DO ESTADO DE SÃO PAULO2013/05691-12013/05691-

Multiplicidade e propriedades funcionais da hemoglobina de Geochelone carbonaria (Spisc,1924)(tartaruga terrestre)

Orientador: Satie H. OgoDissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de BiologiaResumo: O hemolisado de Geochelone carbonaria apresentou heterogeneidade eletroforética. No hemolisado foram observados 8 componentes e o oitavo componente foi completamente reduzido quando a amostra foi tratada com agente redutor, indicando que tenha sido originado pela polimerização através da formação de pontes de dissulfeto entre as hemoglobinas. O hemolisado tratado com agente alquilante (iodoacetamida), apresentou apenas 3 frações em cromatografia de troca iônica. A determinação das cadeias que constituem estes componentes demonstrou que apenas dois componentes são estruturalmente diferentes e constituídos pelas cadeias de globina (G1G2)2 e (G1G3)2. Baixa afinidade da hemoglobina pelo oxigênio foi observada tanto para o hemolisado total como para o hemolisado "stripped". O hemolisado "stripped" na presença de ATP ou IHP, mostrou ligeira alteração com relação ao valor de P50. Em concentrações fisiológicas o efeito destes polifosfatos foi ainda menor. No entanto, o sítio para ligação de polifosfatos mostrou maior afinidade pelo IHP. Todas as formas do hemolisado apresentaram efeito Bohr e os valores de nH foram sensivelmente maiores em pH próximos de 7,5 e em presença de ATP. A polimerização iniciou-se logo após a hemólise e após 210 dias de estoque do hemolisado "stripped", 73% do hemolisado era constituído pelo polímero maior (256.000 Da) e 27% por hemoglobina tetramérica. O número de grupos -SH reativos encontrados para o hemolisado "stripped" logo após a hemólise (5,3 SH/mol de Hb), corrobora os dados eletroforéticos e de peso molecular. O hemolisado total apresentou 7,3 SH/mol de Hb, logo após a hemólise. A diferença observada entre o hemolisado "stripped" e total, pode ser devido a presença de tióis não protêicos no hemolisado total, possivelmente glutationa. A ligação de glutationa a hemoglobina pode aumentar a heterogeneidade eletroforética, originando componentes GS-SHb. As pontes de dissulfeto mistas foram menos acessíveis ao agente redutorAbstract: G. carbonaria hemolysate shows electrophoretic heterogeneity. In hemolysate 8 components were observed. The eighth component was completely reduced when the sample was treated with a reducing agent, indicating that it originated through polymeryzation induced by dissulphide bridge formation between hemoglobins. Hemolysate treated with an alkylating agent (iodoacetamide) presented only 3 fraction in ion exchange chromatography. The determination of constituent globin chains demonstrated that only two types of structurally distinct components exist, constituted by globin chains (G1G2)2 e (G1G3)2. Low hemoglobin oxygen affinity was observed for total and stripped hemolysate and both were dependent of pH. Stripped hemolysate showed a slight alteration in P50 values in the presence of ATP or IHP. In physiological concentration, the effect of these polyphosphate was even smaller. The polyphosphate binding site demonstrated higher affinity for IHP. The nH values were considerably higher in pH dose to 7,5 and in the presence of ATP. Polymeryzation initiated soon after hemolysis, and after 210 days of stocking the stripped hemolysate showed 73% the larger polymer (256.000 Da) and 27% of tetrameric hemoglobin. The number of reactive -SH groups found for the stripped hemolysate following hemolysis (5,3 SH/moles of Hb) corroborates the electrophoretic and molecular mass data. Total hemolysate presented 7,3 SH/moles of Hb following hemolysis. The observed difference between total and stripped hemolysate may be due to non-proteic thiol, present in total hemolysate, possibly glutathione. The binding of glutathione to hemoglobin can raise electrophoretic heterogeneity, originating GS-SHb components. The mixed dissulphide bridges were less acessible to the reducing agentMestradoBioquimicaMestre em Ciências Biológica

Envolvimento de grupos tiois de hermoglobina na proteção do eritrocito contra agentes oxidantes

Orientador: Satie Hatsushika OgoTese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de BiologiaResumo: Hemoglobinas de várias espécies de vertebrados apresentam capacidade polimerizar-se através da fonnação de pontes de disulfeto. Nestas espécies, a hemoglobina apresenta grupos tióis reativos, os quais levam também a fonnação de pontes de disulfeto mistas com a glutationa. Muitos autores tem relacionado a presença destes grupos tióis na hemoglobina a resistência do animal a hipóxia. Outros estudos tem também relacionado estes grupos a um mecanismo adicional de participação da Hb em processos de proteção celular contra agentes oxidantes. Dentre os grupos de vertebrados, os répteis destacam-se por apresentarem muitas espécies com hemoglobinas ricas em grupos tióis reativos. O jabuti Geochelone carbonaria, pertencente a família Testudinidae, apresenta cerca de 4 SH reativos na hemo gl obina, e um complexo padrão eletroforético, o qual foi demonstrado ser uma consequência da intensa fonnação de disulfetos. Outra espécie pertencente ao mesmo gênero, Geochelone denticulata, apresenta apenas 2 grupos tióis reativosJHb e um padrão eletroforético do hemolisado comparativamente mais simples. Os estudos de susceptibilidade da Hb stripped da 2 espécies a oxidação mostraram que a Hb de G. denticulata é mais susceptível, provavelmente devido ao menor número de grupos tióis reativos na Hb. A modificação da hemoglobina de G. carbonaria por diamida ou GS-SG não induziu significante alteração nas propriedades funcionais da hemoglobina de G. carbonaria. Por outro lado, a susceptibilidade da hemoglobina à oxidação foi sensivelmente alterada pelas mesmas modificações. A peroxidação lipídica da membrana de eritrócitos humanos na presença destas hemoglobinas modificadas ou não, mostraram também que as alterações na molécula induziam a perda da capacidade da hemoglobina de prevenir a peroxidação. O mesmo comportamento não foi observado para a hemoglobina tratada com diamida. Adicionalmente foi determinada a atividade das enzimas que fazem parte do sistema antioxidante das 2 espécies de quelônios. A glutationa peroxidase e a glutationa redutase foram mais ativas na espécie G. denticulata, enquanto que a superóxido dismutase e catalase foram mais ativas na espécie G. carbonaria. A titulação da concentração de GSH no eritrócito de G. carbonaria mostrou que esta é cerca de 2 vezes maior que na espécie G. denticulata. Portanto, a espécie G. carbonaria apresenta maior poder redutor no interior do eritrócito e a presença de tióis reativos na hemoglobina pode ser um mecanismo adicional de proteção celularAbstract: Hemoglobinas de várias espécies de vertebrados apresentam capacidade polimerizar-se através da fonnação de pontes de disulfeto. Nestas espécies, a hemoglobina apresenta grupos tióis reativos, os quais levam também a fonnação de pontes de disulfeto mistas com a glutationa. Muitos autores tem relacionado a presença destes grupos tióis na hemoglobina a resistência do animal a hipóxia. Outros estudos tem também relacionado estes grupos a um mecanismo adicional de participação da Hb em processos de proteção celular contra agentes oxidantes. Dentre os grupos de vertebrados, os répteis destacam-se por apresentarem muitas espécies com hemoglobinas ricas em grupos tióis reativos. O jabuti Geochelone carbonaria, pertencente a família Testudinidae, apresenta cerca de 4 SH reativos na hemo gl obina, e um complexo padrão eletroforético, o qual foi demonstrado ser uma consequência da intensa fonnação de disulfetos. Outra espécie pertencente ao mesmo gênero, Geochelone denticulata, apresenta apenas 2 grupos tióis reativosJHb e um padrão eletroforético do hemolisado comparativamente mais simples. Os estudos de susceptibilidade da Hb stripped da 2 espécies a oxidação mostraram que a Hb de G. denticulata é mais susceptível, provavelmente devido ao menor número de grupos tióis reativos na Hb. A modificação da hemoglobina de G. carbonaria por diamida ou GS-SG não induziu significante alteração nas propriedades funcionais da hemoglobina de G. carbonaria. Por outro lado, a susceptibilidade da hemoglobina à oxidação foi sensivelmente alterada pelas mesmas modificações. A peroxidação lipídica da membrana de eritrócitos humanos na presença destas hemoglobinas modificadas ou não, mostraram também que as alterações na molécula induziam a perda da capacidade da hemoglobina de prevenir a peroxidação. O mesmo comportamento não foi observado para a hemoglobina tratada com diamida. Adicionalmente foi determinada a atividade das enzimas que fazem parte do sistema antioxidante das 2 espécies de quelônios. A glutationa peroxidase e a glutationa redutase foram mais ativas na espécie G. denticulata, enquanto que a superóxido dismutase e catalase foram mais ativas na espécie G. carbonaria. A titulação da concentração de GSH no eritrócito de G. carbonaria mostrou que esta é cerca de 2 vezes maior que na espécie G. denticulata. Portanto, a espécie G. carbonaria apresenta maior poder redutor no interior do eritrócito e a presença de tióis reativos na hemoglobina pode ser um mecanismo adicional de proteção celularDoutoradoDoutor em Ciência

Short-term high-fat diet consumption reduces hypothalamic expression of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha 7 subunit (alpha 7nAChR) and affects the anti-inflammatory response in a mouse model of sepsis

Sepsis is one of the leading causes of death in hospitalized patients and the chronic and low-grade inflammation observed in obesity seems to worsen susceptibility and morbidity of infections. However, little is known with respect to a short-term high-fat diet (HFD) and its role in the development of sepsis. Here, we show for the first time, that short-term HFD consumption impairs early nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha 7 subunit (alpha 7nAChR)-mediated signaling, one of the major components of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, with a focus on hypothalamic inflammation and innate immune response. Mice were randomized to a HFD or standard chow (SC) for 3 days, and sepsis was subsequently induced by a lethal intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) surgery. In a separate experiment, both groups received LPS (i.p.) or LPS (i.p.) in conjunction with the selective a alpha nAChR agonist, PNU-282987 (i.p. or intracerebroventricular; i.c.v.), and were sacrificed 2 h after the challenge. Short-term HFD consumption significantly reduced the alpha 7nAChR mRNA and protein levels in the hypothalamus and liver (p < 0.05). Immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated lower cholinergic receptor nicotinic alpha 7 subunit (alpha 7nAChR)+ cells in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) (alpha 7nAChR+ cells in SC = 216 and HFD = 84) and increased F4/80+ cells in the ARC (2.6-fold) and median eminence (ME) (1.6-fold), which can contribute to neuronal damage. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ cells and neuronal nuclear antigen (NeuN)+ cells were also increased following consumption of HFD. The HFD-fed mice died quickly after a lethal dose of LPS or following CLP surgery (2-fold compared with SC). The LPS challenge raised most cytokine levels in both groups; however, higher levels of TNF-alpha (Spleen and liver), IL-1 beta and IL-6 (in all tissues evaluated) were observed in HFD-fed mice. Moreover, PNU-282987 administration (i.p. or i.c.v.) reduced the levels of inflammatory markers in the hypothalamus following LPS injection. Nevertheless, when the i.c.v. injection of PNU-282987 was performed the anti-inflammatory effect was much smaller in HFD-fed mice than SC-fed mice. Here, we provide evidence that a short-term HFD impairs early alpha 7nAChR expression in central and peripheral tissues, contributing to a higher probability of death in sepsis10CONSELHO NACIONAL DE DESENVOLVIMENTO CIENTÍFICO E TECNOLÓGICO - CNPQFUNDAÇÃO DE AMPARO À PESQUISA DO ESTADO DE SÃO PAULO - FAPESPsem informação16/23484-1; 13/07607-

Wide housing space and chronic exercise enhance physical fitness and adipose tissue morphology in rats

2011/16222-7; 2012/20501-1305650/2009-2The current cages commonly used in animal experiments can prevent rats from engaging in most forms of natural locomotion behaviors. These animals tend to exhibit sedentary habits. Here, we show that a combination of wide housing space and training exercise helps to reduce white adipose mass and to increase brown adipose mass. Thus, this combination is a useful strategy for truly enhancing the physical fitness of captive rats commonly used in exercise-related interventional studies and to maximize their welfare.The current cages commonly used in animal experiments can prevent rats from engaging in most forms of natural locomotion behaviors. These animals tend to exhibit sedentary habits. Here, we show that a combination of wide housing space and training exercis405489492FAPESP - FUNDAÇÃO DE AMPARO À PESQUISA DO ESTADO DE SÃO PAULOCNPQ - CONSELHO NACIONAL DE DESENVOLVIMENTO CIENTIFICO E TECNOLOGICOFAPESP - FUNDAÇÃO DE AMPARO À PESQUISA DO ESTADO DE SÃO PAULOCNPQ - CONSELHO NACIONAL DE DESENVOLVIMENTO CIENTIFICO E TECNOLOGICO2011/16222-7; 2012/20501-1305650/2009-2FAPESP [2011/16222-7, 2012/20501-1]CNPq [305650/2009-2]2011/16222-7; 2012/20501-1305650/2009-2The current cages commonly used in animal experiments can prevent rats from engaging in most forms of natural locomotion behaviors. These animals tend to exhibit sedentary habits. Here, we show that a combination of wide housing space and training exerci

Beet (Beta vulgaris L.) stalk and leaf supplementation changes the glucose homeostasis and inflammatory markers in the liver of mice exposed to a high-fat diet

Although beet stalks and leaves are not consumed and are usually discarded, they are an important source of bioactive flavonoids possessing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of supplementation with beet stalks and leaves on metabolic parameters and glucose homeostasis in mice exposed to a high-fat diet. Six-week-old male Swiss mice were randomly divided into five experimental groups submitted to either standard diet (CT) or high-fat diet (HF), and HF-fed mice were subdivided into three treatment groups supplemented with oven-dehydrated beet stalks and leaves (SL), lyophilized beet stalks and leaves (Ly) or beet stalk and leaf extract (EX). Supplementation with SL promoted a mild improvement in the glucose homeostasis and decreased the protein levels of TNFα with no alterations in hepatic triglyceride content. It remains to be clarified if the enhancement in the glucose homeostasis observed in HFSL could be a consequence of improvement in pancreatic insulin secretion and/or glucose uptake from skeletal muscle and white adipose tissues