Optimizing Control of a Batch Reaction Process

The batch chemical reaction is chosen as the process model to be optimized and the rate constants are functions of pressure only, as the reactions are assumed to occur isothermally. The time optimal control problem considered here means to determine the minimum time path from the given initial compositions to desired final compositions by manipulating the process pressure. A gradient method or a steepest-ascent method is applied to determine the control variable program by using the high speed digital computer. Numerical solutions are presented for the following three cases: (1) no constraint on the operating pressure ...... open and matched terminal constraint. (2) constraint on the operating pressure ...... open terminal constraint. (3) constant operating pressure ...... open terminal constraint

Smelling “Zuko”: Incense Rubbing into the Hands and Smelling the Hands Activates Specific Brain Regions

The purpose of this study is to clarify the effects of the smelling “Zuko”, incense rubbing into hands and putting the hands for the human brain. From our previous studies on the smelling an incense odor with putting the hands together, the activities of “Zuko” incense are also considered to be promoted as the imitation of habitual behaviors by mirror neurons and the default mode network in our brain. In this experiment, the brain activation was measured in 10 healthy adult volunteers who did or did not have a habit of putting their hands together and magneto-encephalography (MEG) data were recorded while the participants smelled “Zuko” incense and putting their hands together. The peak response of MEG P300m for the “auditory odd-ball paradigm” was also measured for a rare auditory pulse stimulation and was more enforced by the smelling “Zuko” incense. We used alpha-amylase value as an index of the stress state measured in the state before and after smelling “Zuko” and MEG experiments. From these results it can be considered that smelling “Zuko” promote the excitation of the higher activities to human brain and make changing the specific brain areas such as OFC, F5 and V1

Simultaneous Smelling an Incense Outdoor and Putting the Hands Together Activate Specific Brain Areas

Mirror neurons are involved in imitation of habitual behaviors. To increase understanding of the theory of mirror neurons and the default mode network, brain activation was explored in 11 healthy adult volunteers who did or did not have a habit of putting their hands together as if praying. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) data were recorded while the participants simultaneously smelled an odor in two kinds of incenses outdoor and/or while they moved to putting their hands together. A magnetoencephalographic contour map of the recorded findings was drawn and an estimated current dipole (ECD) was set. Regardless of a habit of putting their hands together or not, the inner lobe of the frontal area, anterior area in the temporal lobe, and F5 language area in the left frontal lobe and so on were specifically activated. We used cortisol value as an index of the stress state measured in every state (before and after smelling two different incenses outdoor). These experiments suggest that simultaneous smelling an incense outdoor and the behavior of putting their hands together increased the activity of these specific areas in the human brain due to mutual interactions and enhanced interactions

Managing the Data: The Tell Ziyadeh Archaeological Project

Archaeological research depends on several types of data; material, contextual and analytical. Material data refers to the actual artifacts, features, and sites themselves. Contextual data are location, local geography, chronology, cross-correlations among data sets, historical and ethnographic. Analyses may be geochemical (petrographic, isotopic, pXRF), stylistic, or comparative archaeological. For an effective understanding of archaeological sites, a research project must be based on a research design suited for effective data recovery, analysis, interpretation and synthesis. With the development of digital technology, the amount of data that can be incorporated into each archaeological project has grown exponentially, and making these data accessible for other researchers and creating digital archives is critically important, especially as archaeology is a highly destructive science. In this poster, we use the example of our Tell Ziyadeh project, to show how archaeologists deal with such issues

Comparison of owner-reported behavioral characteristics among genetically clustered breeds of dog (Canis familiaris).

During the domestication process, dogs were selected for their suitability for multiple purposes, resulting in a variety of behavioral characteristics. In particular, the ancient group of breeds that is genetically closer to wolves may show different behavioral characteristics when compared to other breed groups. Here, we used questionnaire evaluations of dog behavior to investigate whether behavioral characteristics of dogs were different among genetically clustered breed groups. A standardized questionnaire, the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), was used, and breed group differences of privately-owned dogs from Japan (n = 2,951) and the United States (n = 10,389) were analyzed. Results indicated that dogs in the ancient and spitz breed group showed low attachment and attention-seeking behavior. This characteristic distinguished the ancient group from any other breed groups with presumed modern European origins, and may therefore, be an ancestral trait

イヌの進化に関する研究 : 認知能力の犬種間比較と関連遺伝子の探索

イヌの起源は1万5千年から3万3千年前と考えられており、祖先種の一部の集団がヒトの近くで生活するようになってイヌへ進化したと言われている。その後、およそ1万年前に農業の発達と共に小ささや従順さなどによる強い人為的選択が始まったとされている。さらに200年前に、犬種クラブや組織的な繁殖が始まり、多くの犬種が急激に作成された歴史がある。この進化と家畜化の過程において気質・行動や認知能力が選択圧に大きく寄与して、変化したと予測できる。例えばイヌはオオカミに比べて解決不可能な課題が提示された場合にヒトの方を早く振り返ることや、ヒトの指差しにしたがって指し示されたカップを選ぶ確率が高いことが報告されており、イヌはその進化・家畜化の過程で特異的な認知能力を獲得したと考えられる。しかし、その遺伝的背景は未だ明らかとなっていない。　現在、非公認犬種も含め世界には700から800もの犬種が確立されている。最近の遺伝子クラスター解析により、それらの犬種の中には祖先種に近いクラスター（以降原始的な犬グループと呼ぶ）が存在することが明らかとなり、原始的な犬グループには、柴犬や秋田犬等の日本固有の犬種が含まれていた。このことは柴犬や秋田犬等の日本犬が、その他の犬種よりも遺伝的にオオカミに近いことを意味している。　本研究では、イヌの選択圧の中心的役割と考えられる気質・行動や認知能力において、原始的な犬が一般的な犬種とオオカミの間に位置し、その行動は遺伝的に制御されていると仮説を立てた。さらにこの仮説に基づき、イヌの進化・家畜化の過程でオオカミから変化した行動に関与する遺伝子の探索を目指し、以下の第1章から第4章までの研究を行った。第1章：原始的な犬グループのイヌの一般的な飼育下における行動特性　日本及び米国における一般の飼い主及びブリーダーを対象としたイヌの行動特性に関するアンケート調査を、インターネット媒体を用いて実施した。イヌの行動解析システムは、C-barqを用いた。質問は、米国100問、日本78問から成り、様々な場面における犬の行動を5段階で評価する内容である。犬種を既に報告されていた遺伝分岐図を元に8つのグループに分類し、犬の行動特性の犬種グループ比較に用いた。質問項目について因子分析及び平行分析を行い、各因子の平均値を因子得点として分析に使用した。　アンケート結果を因子分析したところ、11の因子に分類された（訓練性、活発度、愛着、分離不安、侵入者に対する攻撃性、飼い主に対する攻撃性、見知らぬ人に対する攻撃性、見知らぬ犬に対する攻撃性、非社会的刺激に対する恐怖反応、見知らぬ人に対する恐怖反応、見知らぬ犬に対する恐怖反応）。そのうち、原始的な犬グループのイヌはどの犬種グループよりもヒトへの愛着が低いことが明らかとなった（pT）が検出され、原始的な犬では一般的な犬種に比べTを持つ頻度が高かった。またこのT型の遺伝子型を持つ個体では、指差し二者選択課題の視線＋指差し＋タッピングの課題の正答数が高い結果となった（pA）が検出され、原始的な犬では一般的な犬種に比べAを持つ頻度が高かった。またこのA型の遺伝子型を持つ個体を一般的な犬種内で比較した結果、指差し二者選択課題の視線＋指差し＋タッピング課題、視線＋指差し課題、指差し課題の正答数が低い結果となった（pA）と反復数多型（repGGGGCC）が検出され、原始的な犬では一般的な犬種に比べ一塩基多型ではAを持つ頻度が高く、反復数多型では25塩基及び37塩基の長さの配列を持つ頻度が低かった。原始的な犬に多いA/A型の一塩基多型を持つ個体では、A/C型の遺伝子型を持つ個体よりも、解決不可能課題のヒトを見ている時間、ヒトを見る回数、交互凝視の回数においてヒトを見ない結果となった（p<0.05）。反復数多型では25塩基又は37塩基の長さの配列をヘテロで持つ個体において、挿入を持たない個体よりも解決不可能課題でヒトを見る回数が多い傾向が見られた（p=0.078）。OTR（オキシトシン受容体遺伝子）においては、原始的な犬と一般的な犬種とで出現頻度の異なる一塩基多型が検出されたものの、行動実験の結果とは関連性が見られなかった。第4章：日本犬のβアミラーゼコピー数多型　オオカミ、秋田犬、柴犬、原始的な犬グループ以外のイヌ（ラブラドール、スタンダードプードル等の様々な犬種）のアミラーゼコピー数を調査した。柴犬は、一般的にペットとして飼われている柴犬と天然記念物柴犬保存会の厳しい管理の元で交配が行われている縄文柴を用いた。　オオカミのアミラーゼコピー数は先行研究で報告されているとおり、2コピー程度であった。また、オオカミへの遺伝的近さから予想したとおり、秋田犬のコピー数はオオカミよりも多いが一般的な犬種より少なかった（p<0.01）。一方、秋田犬と同じく原始的な犬グループに含まれる柴犬のコピー数は、一般的な犬種と同程度であり、柴犬のオオカミへの遺伝的近さと反した結果となった。縄文柴のコピー数は、柴犬より少なく（p<0.01）、秋田犬より多かった（p<0.05）。　本研究によって、原始的な犬グループのイヌは一般的な犬種と比較してヒトへの愛着が低く、解決不可能課題においてヒトを見ないことが明らかとなった。これは先行研究によって知られている遺伝分岐図の結果と一致する結果であり、イヌの進化・家畜化は気質・行動や認知能力によって選択されていることを示唆する内容である。一方で、指差し二者選択課題でヒトからの社会的な指示を読み取る能力では、原始的な犬グループのイヌは一般的な犬種と同程度又はより高いという結果が得られた。解決不可能課題と指差し二者選択課題では関連性が見られず、解決不可能課題においてヒトを見ることや指差し二者選択課題でヒトからの社会的な指示を読み取る能力は、イヌの進化・家畜化において別々に獲得されたものであることを示唆する結果といえた。イヌの認知能力に関連する遺伝子の探索では、WBSCR17遺伝子、MC2R遺伝子が第一の選択に関与し、OT遺伝子が第二の選択に関わると考えられ、探索した遺伝子型の結果からも、イヌの進化・家畜化に二段階が存在する可能性が示された。The dog (Canis familiaris) was the first animal to be domesticated and today hundreds of different breeds are recognized. The researches on ancient canid fossils had revealed that the dog domestication had started around 33000 years ago when humans were hunter-gatherers. About 15000 years ago, as humans established the permanent settlements and began farming, they started to artificially select dogs on their docility and physical smallness. Around 200 years ago, as the Kennel Clubs had been established, the large commercial breeding had dramatically accelerated the creation of new pure breeds. During this series of the dog domestication process, we believe that dogs had been under strong selection for their temperament, behavior, and cognitive abilities. It had been reported that wolves do not look back at humans but dogs do when encountered unsolvable tasks. It had also reported that dogs are skilled at reading human communicative gestures compared to wolves. These findings suggest that dogs had acquired their unique cognitive abilities during domestication, but how they acquired these abilities and genetic basis of these abilities have well not been studied. With the remarkable improvement of technologies available for genetic analysis, genetic relationships in dog breeds have recently been studied and genetic classifications of dog breeds have been constructed. Cladogram analysis of dog genes showed the separation of several breeds with supposedly ancient origins including Japanese dogs such as Shiba and Akita from a large group of breeds with presumed modern European origins. Modern European breeds are the products of controlled breeding practices since the Victorian era, and because they have originated recently and lack deep histories, the genetic groups have short internodes and low bootstrap support. On the other hand, ancient breeds are highly divergent and are distinct from modern European breeds. Since the dogs from these ancient breeds are genetically related most closely to wolves, which share the most common recent ancestor, they may be the closest living representatives of the ancestral dog type. Several studies comparing wolves, dogs, and other canids, suggest that behavioral changes were critical during the early stages of the domestication process. In this study, we looked into the behavioral characteristics of breeds, especially those belonging to the ancient group, to find clues for understanding the domestication of the dog. Chapter I: The behavioral characteristics of the ancient breeds on daily life.We used questionnaire evaluations of dog behavior to investigate whether behavioral characteristics of dogs were different among genetically clustered breed groups. A standardized questionnaire, the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), was used, and behavioral evaluations of privately-owned dogs from Japan (n = 5,377) and the United States (n = 14,481) were obtained. Breed group differences were analyzed and the results indicated that dogs in the ancient and spitz breed group showed low attachment and attention-seeking behavior. This characteristic distinguished the ancient group from any other breed groups with presumed modern European origins, and may therefore, be an ancestral trait. Chapter II: The characteristics on social cognitive abilities of the ancient breeds. We investigated the breed differences on social cognitive abilities using the unsolvable task and the two-way object choice task. The privately-owned dogs in Japan were voluntary recruited and the behavior tests were performed at the owners’ houses, dog training schools, dog cafes, or at the test room in the Azabu University. All trials were videotaped and the breed group differences were analyzed. The results indicated that for the unsolvable task, the dogs in the ancient group had low tendency of looking back at humans. For the two-way object choice task, the ancient group showed high correct responses and there were no breed group differences on the ability to read human communicative gestures. Chapter III: The investigation of the dog genes associated with the social cognition. We selected oxytocin and cortisol as communication related hormones, and investigated the gene polymorphisms on oxytocin (OT), oxytocin receptor (OTR) and melanocorin 2 recepter (MC2R) genes. We also selected Williams-Beuren syndrome related gene (WBSCR17) for candidate genes of dog domestication since it was reported as a domestication related gene. We investigated the breed group differences of the polymorphisms and the associations between gene polymorphisms and the cognitive abilities for the unsolvable task and the two-way object choice task performed in Chapter II. As a result, we found polymorphisms on WBSCR17, MC2R, OT and OTR whose allele frequency were different among the ancient group and the other breeds. Since we are currently in the process of preparing a paper submission, the detailed results will be released later. Chapter IIII: Copy number variations in the amylase gene (AMY2B) in Japanese native dog breeds. A recent study suggested that increased copy numbers of the AMY2B gene might be a crucial genetic change that occurred during the domestication of dogs. To investigate AMY2B expansion in ancient breeds, we analysed copy numbers in native Japanese dog breeds. Copy numbers in the Akita and Shiba, two ancient breeds in Japan, were higher than those in wolves. However, compared to a group of various modern breeds, Akitas had fewer copy numbers, while Shibas exhibited the same level of expansion as modern breeds. Interestingly, average AMY2B copy numbers in the Jomon-Shiba, a unique line of the Shiba that has been bred to maintain their appearance resembling ancestors of native Japanese dogs and that originated in the same region as the Akita, were lower than those in the Shiba. These differences may have arisen from the earlier introduction of agriculture to the region in which the Shiba originated compared to the region in which the Akita and the Jomon-Shiba originated. The level of AMY2B expansion in Japanese native breeds was equal to or lower than that of modern breeds and this analysis revealed that AMY2B expansion occurred in ancient dogs in Japan. In conclusion, we discovered that the ancient group have low attachment and attention-seeking and low tendency of looking back at humans at the unsolvable task. These findings coincide with the cladogram analysis of dog genes, and we conclude that dogs were under strong selection for their temperament, behavior, and cognitive abilities during their domestication processes. On the other hand, for the two-way object choice task, the abilities to read human communicative gestures were not different between the ancient group and the other breeds. Since there were no association between the scores of the unsolvable task and the two-way object choice task, we believe that these abilities were acquired separately during the dog domestication. We will present the details of our research concerning the domestication and the related gene later.博士(学術)麻布大学この博士論文は内容の要約のみの公開（または一部非公開）になっていま

The Frequency Variations of the Oxytocin Receptor Gene Polymorphisms among Dog Breeds

The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) has been diverged from wolves 15,000–100,000 years ago and certain genetic changes may have enabled them to adapt to the human social niche. In this study, we investigated the polymorphisms of the oxytocin receptor gene in dogs and wolves in order to investigate the possibility of the genetic change in the oxytocin system during dog domestication processes. Genotypes of the oxytocin receptor gene polymorphisms were determined in dogs and wolves. The single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP; rs22927829, rs8679682, rs22896457) were observed in the sampled dogs. On the other hand, for the SNPs rs22927823 and rs22927826, only homozygous GG genotypes were observed (n=25). The frequencies of the SNPs (rs8679682 and rs22896457) were significantly different among wolves and dogs, and also among dog breed groups (p<0.05, chi-square test). The frequency profile of these SNPs among dog breed groups supports the hypothesis that there were selections on the oxytocin receptor gene during the dog domestication processes