Physical mechanisms of heat, momentum and turbulence fluxes

In a qualitative way, the physical mechanisms which generate fluxes of heat, momentum, and turbulence in the atmosphere are discussed. This material is presented to acquaint people with the Earth science aspects of turbulence as important processes in the atmosphere. To attempt to describe turbulent fluxes of heat, momentum, and moisture in precise mathematical detail becomes an intractable problem. It is burdened by an eighth order set of equations involving more variables than equations. It is a closure problem which requires complicated assumptions that are not necessarily always satisfied, variable boundary conditions, and sparse observational data. Therefore, we must approach the problem in a simplified manner to obtain any kind of solution involving the variables of shear, stress, and heat, moisture, and momentum fluxes. There are other problems, of course, in which the inclusion of the planetary boundary layer is extremely important. Air pollution studies, air-sea exchanges, mesoscale models, and so on, must account for the planetary layer in very specific terms. Some of the physical mechanisms that are involved in generating fluxes are described

Cartel damages claims and the passing-on defense

We develop a general economic framework for computing cartel damages claims by purchaser plaintiffs. We decompose the lost profits from the cartel in three parts: the direct cost effect (or anticompetitive price overcharge), the pass-on effect and the usually neglected output effect. The pass-on effect is the extent to which the plaintiff passes on the price overcharge by raising its own price, and the output effect is the lost business resulting from this passing-on. We subsequently introduce various models of imperfect competition for the plaintiffs industry. This enables us to evaluate the relative importance of the cost, pass-on and output effects. We show that an adjusted passing-on defense (i.e. accounting for the output effect) is justified under a wide variety of circumstances, provided that sufficiently many .firms in the plaintiff’s market are affected by the cartel. We derive exact discounts to the direct cost effect, which depend on relatively easy-to-observe variables, such as the pass-on rate, the number of firms, the number of firms affected by the cartel, and/or the market shares. We finally extend our framework to assess the cartel’s total harm, further demonstrating the crucial importance of the output effect. Our results are particularly relevant in light of the recent developments by U.S. and European antitrust authorities to make cartel damages claims more in line with actually lost profits.cartel damage claims

Upaya Meningkatkan Kemampuan Siswa Kelas XI IBB1 Sma Negeri 8 Kupang Dalam Mengapresiasi Tema, Latar, Dan Penokohan Cerpen Dengan Menggunakan Metode Inkuiri

Upaya Meningkatkan Kemampuan Siswa Kelas Xi IBB1SMA Negeri 8 Kupang Dalam Mengapresiasi Tema, Latar, Dan Penokohan Cerpen Dengan Menggunakan Metode Inkuiri. Penelitian ini bertujuan adalah untuk meningkatkan kemampuan Siswa Kelas XI IBB1 SMA Negeri 8 Kupang dalam mengapresiasi tema, latar, dan penokohan cerpen dengan menggunakan metode inkuiri.Penelitiantindakankelas dengan kaidah yang teratur dan sistematis dari perencanaan, pelaksanaan tindakan, observasi, dan refleksi yang bersifat daur ulang atau siklus. Subyekpenelitian ini adalah siswa kelas XI IBB1sebanyak 30 siswa dengan objek penelitian adalah seluruh proses dan hasil belajar mengapresiasi tema, latar, dan penokohan cerpen dengan menggunakan metode inkuiri. Berdasarkan analisis terhadap data hasil penelitian tindakan kelas ini, dapat disimpulkan bahwa penggunaan metode inkuiri dalam pembelajaran ini dapat meningkatkan kemampuan siswa mengapresiasi karya sastra.Berdasarkan hasil pengamatan pada tindakan siklus I dan siklus II menunjukkan hasil pemerolehan siklus I mencapai 63% ketuntasan belajar. Dan hasil pemerolehan siklus II mencapai 82% ketuntasan belajar

Price Discrimination Bans on Dominant Firms

Competition authorities and regulatory agencies sometimes impose pricing restrictions on firms with substantial market power — the “dominant” firms. We analyze the welfare effects of a ban on behaviour-based price discrimination in a two-period setting where the market displays a competitive and a sheltered segment. A ban on “higher-prices-to-sheltered-consumers” decreases prices in the sheltered segment, relaxes competition in the competitive segment, increases the rival’s profits, and may harm the dominant firm’s profits. We show that a ban on “higher-prices-to-sheltered-consumers” increases the dominant firm’s share of the first-period market. A ban on “lower-prices-to-rival’s-customers” decreases prices in the competitive segment, lowers the rival’s profits, and augments the consumer surplus. In particular, while second-period competition is relaxed by a ban on “lower-prices-to-rival’s-customers”, first-period competition is intensified substantially, which leads to lower prices “on-average” over the two periods. Our findings indicate that a dynamic two-period analysis may lead to conclusions opposite to those drawn from a static one-period analysis.dominant firms, price discrimination, competition policy, regulation

Seasonal transitions in the thermal structure of the mesosphere at high latitudes

Acoustic grenade experiments to monitor transition in thermal structure of mesospher

New features of global climatology revealed by satellite-derived oceanic rainfall maps

Quantitative rainfall maps over the oceanic areas of the globe were derived from the Nimbus 5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) data. Analysis of satellite derived oceanic rainfall maps reveal certain distinctive characteristics of global patterns for the years 1973-74. The main ones are (1) the forking of the Intertropical Convergence Zone in the Pacific, (2) a previously unrecognized rain area in the South Atlantic, (3) the bimodal behavior of rainbelts in the Indian Ocean and (4) the large interannual variability in oceanic rainfall. These features are discussed

Vertical temperature and density patterns in the Arctic mesosphere analyzed as gravity waves

Rocket soundings conducted from high latitude sites in the Arctic mesosphere are described. Temperature and wind profiles and one density profile were observed independently to obtain the thermodynamic structure, the wind structure, and their interdependence in the mesosphere. Temperature profiles from all soundings were averaged, and a smooth curve (or series of smooth curves) drawn through the points. A hydrostatic atmosphere based on the average, measured temperature profile was computed, and deviations from the mean atmosphere were analyzed in terms of gravity wave theory. The vertical wavelengths of the deviations were 10-20 km, and the wave amplitudes slowly increased with height. The experimental data were matched by calculated gravity waves having a period of 15-20 minutes and a horizontal wavelength of 60-80 km. The wind measurements are consistent with the thermodynamic measurements. The results also suggest that gravity waves travel from East to West with a horizontal phase velocity of approximately 60 m sec-1