Phylogeny of fish-infecting Calyptospora species (Apicomplexa: Eimeriorina)

There are numerous species of apicomplexans that infect poikilothermic vertebrates, such as fishes, and possess unique morphological features that provide insight into the evolution of this important phylum of parasites. Here, the relationship of the fish-infecting Calyptospora species to other coccidians was investigated based on DNA sequence analysis. Genetic data from the small subunit ribosomal DNA region of the genome were obtained for three of the five nominal species in the genus Calyptospora. Phylogenetic analyses supported a monophyletic lineage sister to a group composed of mostly Eimeria species. The monophyly of Calyptospora species supports the validity of the family Calyptosporidae, but the sister relationship to Eimeria species might also suggest the Eimeriidae be expanded to encompass Calyptospora. The validity of the family Calyptosporidae has been questioned because it is delineated from the Eimeriidae largely based on life cycle characteristics and sporocyst morphology. In general, Eimeria species have a homoxenous life cycle, whereas the type species of Calyptospora is heteroxenous. In the absence of experimental transmission studies, it may be difficult to demonstrate whether all Calyptospora species are heteroxenous. Other distinct morphological characteristics of Calyptospora such as an incomplete sporocyst suture, an apical opening for sporozoite release, a thin veil surrounding sporocysts supported by sporopodia, and a lack of Stieda and sub-Stieda bodies suggest there may be adequate features to delineate these taxa. Even without life cycle data for all species, the morphology and genetic data provide a means to reliably classify Calyptospora species. Placement in either the Calyptosporidae or Eimeriidae is discussed, along with issues relating to the phylogeny of the genus Goussia

Considerations for reducing food system energy demand while scaling up urban agriculture

There is an increasing global interest in scaling up urban agriculture (UA) in its various forms, from private gardens to sophisticated commercial operations. Much of this interest is in the spirit of environmental protection, with reduced waste and transportation energy highlighted as some of the proposed benefits of UA; however, explicit consideration of energy and resource requirements needs to be made in order to realize these anticipated environmental benefits. A literature review is undertaken here to provide new insight into the energy implications of scaling up UA in cities in high-income countries, considering UA classification, direct/indirect energy pressures, and interactions with other components of the food–energy–water nexus. This is followed by an exploration of ways in which these cities can plan for the exploitation of waste flows for resource-efficient UA. Given that it is estimated that the food system contributes nearly 15% of total US energy demand, optimization of resource use in food production, distribution, consumption, and waste systems may have a significant energy impact. There are limited data available that quantify resource demand implications directly associated with UA systems, highlighting that the literature is not yet sufficiently robust to make universal claims on benefits. This letter explores energy demand from conventional resource inputs, various production systems, water/energy trade-offs, alternative irrigation, packaging materials, and transportation/supply chains to shed light on UA-focused research needs. By analyzing data and cases from the existing literature, we propose that gains in energy efficiency could be realized through the co-location of UA operations with waste streams (e.g. heat, CO2, greywater, wastewater, compost), potentially increasing yields and offsetting life cycle energy demands relative to conventional approaches. This begs a number of energy-focused UA research questions that explore the opportunities for integrating the variety of UA structures and technologies, so that they are better able to exploit these urban waste flows and achieve whole-system reductions in energy demand. Any planning approach to implement these must, as always, assess how context will influence the viability and value added from the promotion of UA

Global assessment of urban and peri-urban agriculture: irrigated and rainfed croplands

The role of urban agriculture in global food security is a topic of increasing discussion. Existing research on urban and peri-urban agriculture consists largely of case studies that frequently use disparate definitions of urban and peri-urban agriculture depending on the local context and study objectives. This lack of consistency makes quantification of the extent of this practice at the global scale difficult. This study instead integrates global data on croplands and urban extents using spatial overlay analysis to estimate the global area of urban and peri-urban irrigated and rainfed croplands. The global area of urban irrigated croplands was estimated at about 24 Mha (11.0 percent of all irrigated croplands) with a cropping intensity of 1.48. The global area of urban rainfed croplands found was approximately 44 Mha (4.7 percent of all rainfed croplands) with a cropping intensity of 1.03. These values were derived from the MIRCA2000 Maximum Monthly Cropped Area Grids for irrigated and rainfed crops and therefore their sum does not necessarily represent the total urban cropland area when the maximum extent of irrigated and rainfed croplands occurs in different months. Further analysis of croplands within 20 km of urban extents show that 60 and 35 percent of, respectively, all irrigated and rainfed croplands fall within this distance range

Genetic Characterization and Antibiotic Resistance of Campylobacter jejuni Isolated from Meats, Water, and Humans in Sweden

The incidence of Campylobacter jejuni has increased during the last decade, and today it is the leading cause of bacterial enteritis in most developed countries. Still, there is a lack of knowledge about infection routes and to what extent identified sources are responsible for spreading the bacterium to humans. The major objective of this work was to explore the genetic similarity between C. jejuni isolated from different sources. C. jejuni isolated from patients (n = 95), five types of meat (n = 71), and raw water (n = 11) during the year 2000 were subtyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The pulsotypes obtained after digestion with SmaI revealed not only that C. jejuni is genetically diverse but also that specific pulsotypes occur frequently. Five clusters comprising 88 of the 162 SmaI-digested isolates were obtained. After digestion with KpnI most isolates in four of the five clusters were still indistinguishable, while the fifth cluster was strongly dissolved. The clusters comprised high frequencies of human and meat isolates, while only one of nine water isolates belonged to a cluster. The largest cluster comprised 21 human isolates, one raw water isolate, and seven chicken meat isolates, originating from at least six different broiler flocks. Low frequencies of antibiotic resistance were revealed when the meat and water isolates were tested for sensitivity to six antibiotics. Interestingly, the five isolates resistant to quinolones displayed similar or identical pulsotypes. The results showed that PFGE has proved useful in identifying clones and will be used in future work focusing on identification and eradication of the major reservoirs for common clones

Time to Complete Remission As a Function of Kinetics of White Blood Cell Elimination and Recovery in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Patients Undergoing Remission Induction Chemotherapy

Abstract Background: While achieving complete remission (CR) is a major treatment milestone in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients (pts) undergoing induction chemotherapy (IC), it is the time to achieve CR (Tc) that has greater prognostic value in predicting subsequent survival. We are particularly interested in seeing whether trends in white blood cell (WBC) count elimination and recovery during induction phase can aid in prediction of Tc, thus enabling real-time prognostication. Methods: Adult pts diagnosed with AML (excluding acute promyelocytic leukemia) at the Cleveland Clinic from 10/08 - 11/12 who underwent IC with 7+3 (cytarabine and anthracycline) and achieved CR were included. Pretreatment variables including age, gender, race, smoking status, body mass index at dx, peripheral blood counts at diagnosis (dx), peripheral and marrow blasts at dx, disease classification and metaphase cytogenetics (per CALGB/Alliance 8461 criteria) were assessed. For mapping WBC elimination and recovery kinetics, we collected data on total WBC, absolute neutrophil count (ANC) and absolute lymphocyte count (ALC) at several different time points after IC – day 1, day 7, day 14 (range, 13-17), day 21, day 35 (range 30-45) and the day CR was achieved. Time intervals selected for analysis included time taken for clearance of peripheral circulating blasts; time to reach nadirs for WBC, ANC and ALC; and time to ANC recovery (from ANC nadir to > 500/µL). Tc was assessed as a function of WBC, ANC and ALC measurements (at the above predefined time points); time intervals; and magnitude of drop and rise in WBC, ANC and ALC (log reductions and improvements in counts) using multivariable logistic and Cox proportional hazards models and stepwise regression using Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) for model selection. Due to multiple testing, parameters are reported as significant if p<0.01. Cell counts and time interval metrics were also analyzed as a function of pretreatment covariates using standard linear regression. Results: Of 80 pts, 58% (n=46) were female, 79% (n=63) were Caucasian, 68% (n=54) were younger than 60 years, the median age at treatment was 53.5 years (range, 19 to 77) & 18% (n=14) received 2 cycles of induction therapy. Twenty one pts (26%) had secondary AML. Disease characteristics (per WHO classification) were – AML with recurrent cytogenetic abnormalities 31% (n=25), secondary AML 27% (n=22), therapy-related AML 6% (n=5), AML not otherwise specified 34% (n=26), myeloid sarcoma 1% (n=1) and unknown 1% (n=1). Cytogenetic risk groups per CALGB 8461 were – favorable 19% (n=15), intermediate 53% (n=42), unfavorable 23% (n=18), & unknown cytogenetics (n=5). In the final model of a multivariable stepwise regression analysis, none of the cell counts at the defined time points of IC predicted for Tc. Of pretreatment covariates, only male sex correlated slightly with longer Tc (p=.04). Longer times to reach ANC (p=.01) and ALC (p=.03) nadirs had borderline correlations with longer Tc. In contrast, longer times to reach ANC > 500/µL was significantly associated with delayed Tc (p<<.001). Greater fold change drop and rise in ANC counts correlated with Tc but was not significant at the p<.01 level. Conclusions: In this study the only WBC cell kinetic parameter post IC that independently predicted Tc was time to ANC recovery, which seems intuitive. Biologically, this could represent resiliency of the underlying hematopoietic stem cell reserve which is a function of age, prior therapies or antecedent hematologic disorder. Interestingly, in our series, WBC kinetics did not correlate with the number of induction cycles required (1 vs. 2), age (using age cut-offs of 60 and 70 years) or body mass index. Although the concept of using WBC kinetics during IC as a clinical surrogate for chemotherapy responsiveness or toxicity (overdosing vs. underdosing) is appealing, it is not supported by our data. Disclosures Sekeres: Celgene: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Amgen Corp: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Boehringer-Ingelheim Corp: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Mukherjee:GlaxoSmithKline: Research Funding

Externalities and Spillovers from Sanitation and Waste Management in Urban and Rural Neighborhoods

Proper sanitation and waste management has important health benefits, both directly for the household making the decision and indirectly for its neighbors due to positive externalities. Nevertheless, construction and use of improved sanitation systems in much of the developing world continues to lag. Many recent interventions such as Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) have attempted to harness the power of social interactions to increase take-up of improved sanitation. Most evidence to date mobilizes social pressure in rural areas, yet evidence is more scarce in urban neighborhoods where high population density may lead to larger externalities from poor sanitation decisions. We review the recent literature on how sanitation decisions are inter-related within neighborhoods: the health externalities that sanitation decisions have on neighbors, and the social decision spillovers that drive take-up. We explore potential explanations for the low take-up and maintenance of sanitation systems, including the possibility of nonlinearities and thresholds in health externalities; the roles of social pressure, reciprocity, learning from others, and coordination in decision spillovers; and differences between urban and rural contexts