As rapineiras neotropicais na Europa dos séculos XVI e XVII (Aves, Falconidae, Accipitridae)

O intenso fluxo de animais do Neotrópico observado na Europa durante o início da Idade Moderna incluiria demandas muito singulares vindas de determinados atores sociais. Este parece ser exatamente o caso das aves de rapina, em geral destinadas a uma nobreza entusiasta da falcoaria que concentrava desmedido poder e se mostrava disposta a oferecer atrativas recompensas por exemplares trazidos do além-mar. Vigente ao menos desde 1509, esse tráfico abarcava tanto representantes dos Accipitridae quanto dos Falconidade, havendo registros documentais ou iconográficos para o japacanim (Spizaetus ornatus), o falcão-peregrino (Falco peregrinus) e o falcão-de-coleira (Falco femoralis) – provavelmente o misterioso "aleto" pelo qual se pagavam quantias exorbitantes. A documentação disponível também menciona a surpreendente captura de um gerifalte (Falco rusticolus) ao largo da costa do Brasil – a primeira referência conhecida dessa espécie para o hemisfério sul. Tal como foi comprovado para vários outros grupos zoológicos no continente americano, os dados existentes sugerem a forte possibilidade de algumas rapineiras neotropicais terem sido bem mais numerosas no período colonial.The intense flow of Neotropic animals observed in Europe during the early Modern Age would include very particular demands of certain social actors. This seems to be exactly the case with birds of prey, almost always destined for a very powerful nobility enthusiastic about to falconry and able to offer attractive rewards for the specimens from overseas. Active at least since 1509, this trade encompassed both representatives of the Accipitridae and Falconidae, with documentary or iconographic records for the Ornate Hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) and the Aplomado Falcon (Falco femoralis) – probably the misterious and highly valued "alethe". The available documentation also mentions the surprising capture of a Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) off the Brazilian coast, the first reference known of the species for the southern hemisphere. As has been verified for several other zoological groups on the Americas, the existing data suggest the strong possibility that some raptors were far more numerous in colonial times

The German painter Carl Borromäus Andreas Ruthart (ca. 1630-1703) and some still unregistered images of the extinct dodo, Raphus cucullatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Aves, Columbiformes)

Extinct in the seventeenth century, the famous dodo (Raphus cucullatus) remains almost unknown, and reliable historical accounts of its biology are rare. Neither are taxidermized specimens housed in collections, with the available material limited to osteological samples and some scarce mummified remains. Such a gap would make the representations of dodos in ancient paintings, books and drawings fundamental to reconstructing the true aspect of this bird in life. Indeed, there is a clear effort to list all the images of Raphus cucullatus found in various works of art and manuscripts, a task carried out at least since the mid-nineteenth century. In this sense, it is noteworthy the discovery of four seventeenth-century pictures depicting dodos that would have escaped the scrutiny of the experts. Portraying no less than seven individuals, all these compositions are attributed to the German painter Carl Borromäus Andreas Ruthart (ca. 1630-1703) or his circle. Roughly speaking, the general appearance of the figured birds differs little from that observed in various works by artists such as Roelandt Savery, Jan Savery and Gilles d’Hondecoeter.Extinto no século XVII, o célebre dodô (Raphus cucullatus) permanece quase desconhecido, sendo raros os relatos históricos confiáveis acerca de sua biologia. Tampouco existem espécimens taxidermizados depositados em coleções, estando o material disponível limitado a testemunhos osteológicos e alguns escassos restos mumificados. Semelhante lacuna tornaria a representação de dodôs em antigos quadros, livros e desenhos fundamental para reconstruir o verdadeiro aspecto dessa ave em vida. Com efeito, haveria um claro esforço para arrolar todas as imagens de Raphus cucullatus encontradas em obras de arte e manuscritos diversos, tarefa levada a cabo pelo menos desde meados do século XIX. Nesse sentido, causa grande surpresa a descoberta de quatro telas seiscentistas figurando dodôs que teriam escapado ao escrutínio dos especialistas. Retratando nada menos de sete indivíduos, todas essas composições são atribuídas ao pintor alemão Carl Borromäus Andreas Ruthart (ca. 1630-1703) ou ao seu círculo. Grosso modo, o aspecto geral dos exemplares em questão pouco difere daquele observado em vários trabalhos de artistas como Roelandt Savery, Jan Savery e Gilles d’Hondecoeter

Early (17th and 18th centuries) drawings of lantern-flies and mentions of their bioluminescence (Fulgora spp., Hemiptera, Homoptera, Fulgoridae)

For many years it was believed that the first two notices about New World lantern-flies (Fulgoridae), with descriptions and illustrations of the insects, as well as mentions of their luminescence, were due to Nehemiah Grey (1681) and Maria Sibylla Merian (1705). However, there are illustrations of lantern-flies prior to Grew’s paper, and the first of them, by Jacques de Heyn (1620), also refers to the bioluminescence of those insects. The second is a watercolour by Pieter Holstejn (1614-1673), a Dutch Golden Age painter and engraver. Several illustrations of lantern-flies were lately produced during the 17th and 18th centuries, for example by Alexander Marshal (ca. 1620-1682), an English entomologist, gardener and botanical artist, by Iob Leutholf (1694), and also by an anonymous artist (first half of the 18th century).For many years, it was believed that the first two notices about New World lantern-flies (Fulgoridae), with descriptions and illustrations of the insects, as well as mentions of their luminescence, were due to Nehemiah Grey (1681) and Maria Sibylla Merian (1705). However, there are illustrations of lantern-flies prior to Grew’s paper, and the first of them, by Jacques de Heyn (1620), also refers to the bioluminescence of those insects. The second is a watercolour by Pieter Holstejn (1614‑1673), a Dutch Golden Age painter and engraver. Several illustrations of lantern-flies were lately produced during the 17th and 18th centuries, for example by Alexander Marshal (ca. 1620‑1682), an English entomologist, gardener, and botanical artist, by Iob Leutholf (1694), and also by an anonymous artist (first half of the 18th century)

A "America" de Jodocus Hondius (1563-1612): um estudo das fontes iconográficas

Included among the forty new charts composed by Jodocus Hondius for the 1606 issue of the famous "Mercator-Hondius" Atlas, the "America" is usually considered one of the most splendid maps ever printed about the New World. Of the seventeen ornamental engravings depicted in that map, five compositions are especially significant and show inhabitants from different parts of the world, whereas the remaining twelve represent European ships, sea monsters or marine animals. Despite the well marked influence of the De Bry's "Grand Voyages", several illustrations are based on other sixteenth and seventeenth century works, as the "Cosmographie Universelle" by André Thevet and the Dionyse Settle's report on the voyages of Captain Martin Frobischer. Composing an intricate mosaic, the "America" could be regarded as a tribute to the Protestant expansion in his fierce dispute for the fabulous treasures from overseas.Entre os quarenta novos mapas compostos por Jodocus Hondius para a edição de 1606 do famoso "Atlas" de Mercator-Hondius, a "America" desperta particular interesse por ser considerada uma das mais belas cartas jamais impressas sobre o Novo Mundo. Das 17 gravuras decorativas presentes nesse mapa, as cinco mais importantes retratam composições envolvendo habitantes de diferentes partes do mundo, enquanto as demais mostram navios europeus, monstros e animais marinhos. Embora haja uma clara influência das "Grand Voyages" dos De Bry, essas imagens estão baseadas em várias outras publicações dos séculos XVI e XVII, tais como a "Cosmographie Universelle" de André Thevet e o relato de Dionyse Settle sobre a viagem do capitão Martin Frobischer. Apesar de sua complexidade, a "America" talvez mereça ser entendida como um tributo à expansão das forças reformistas em sua feroz disputa pelas fabulosas riquezas do além-mar

Os quadros de aves tropicais do Castelo de Hoflössnitz na Saxônia e Albert Eckhout (ca. 1610-1666), artista do Brasil Holandês

Very little is known about Albert Eckhout, one of the artists accompanying Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen to Brazil. Between 1653 and 1663, Eckhout remained in the Court of Saxony, but a great part of the works produced during this period was destroyed in 1945 during the bombing of Dresden. Among the few surviving canvases attributed to the Dutch artist, the most noticeable are the eighty oils of tropical birds that adorn the ceiling of the main room of Hoflössnitz, a small palace built between 1648 and 1650 in Radebeul. The paintings are obviously based on other works produced by Eckhout during his stay in Brazil, and seem to be an unexpected addition to the initial project of the building.Pouco se conhece sobre Albert Eckhout, um dos integrantes da comitiva de Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen no Brasil. Entre 1653 e 1663, Eckhout permaneceria a serviço dos príncipes eleitores da Saxônia produzindo obras decorativas e quadros diversos, vários dos quais destruídos em 1945 durante o bombardeio de Dresden. Dos trabalhos que lograram subsistir, o conjunto mais significativo compreende oitenta óleos de aves tropicais que adornam o teto da sala principal do Castelo de Hoflössnitz, palacete erguido entre 1648 e 1650 na localidade de Radebeul. Esses quadros mostram íntima relação com as iconografias elaboradas por Eckhout no Brasil e parecem constituir uma inesperada adição ao projeto inicial do edifício

Os animais do novo mundo figurados na “Arca de Noé sobre o Monte Ararat” de Simon de Myle (1570): um estudo das fontes iconográficas

Ativo no terceiro quartel do século XVI, Simon de Myle constitui um verdadeiro enigma, pois sua vida e carreira permanecem totalmente desconhecidas até os dias de hoje. A “Arca de Noé sobre o Monte Ararat” é seu único quadro assinado e datado ("Simone de Myle inventor et fecit 1570"), figurando o desembarque dos animais após o dilúvio. Levando em conta mesmo as representações demasiado precárias, essa composição inclui nada menos de 228 monstros, voláteis e quadrúpedes, isso sem considerar as carcaças e as espécies aquáticas deixadas para trás com o recuo das águas. Entre as fontes iconográficas utilizadas destacam-se vários tomos da “Historia Animalium” de Conrad Gesner, além da “Warachtighe Fabulen der Dieren” de Marcus Gheeraerts. Ao contrário de outras pinturas quinhentistas acerca do mesmo tema, essa “Arca de Noé” retrata um número inesperado de animais do Novo Mundo, elenco composto por dois mamíferos, pelo menos três aves e dois “seres prodígiosos”. Nesse particular, o quadro de Simon de Myle inadvertidamente evoca as dúvidas sobre a verossimilhança da passagem bíblica relativa à Arca de Noé, reflexo da descoberta de um número cada vez maior de espécies zoológicas em terras distantes. Colocada já em 1502 por Amerigo Vespucci, essa questão atravessaria os séculos XVI e XVII, levando autores como Joseph de Acosta (1590) e Athanasius Kircher (1675) a buscar uma improvável conciliação entre a realidade factual observada no outro lado do oceano e a verdade revelada contida no livro do Gênesis.Active in the third quarter of the 16th century, Simon de Myle is really enigmatic, as his life and career remain completely unknown up to day. The “Noah’s Ark on Mount Ararat” is his only painting signed and dated ("Simone de Myle inventor et fecit 1570"), and figures the animals disembark after the deluge. Considering even the very poor representations, this picture encompasses not less than 228 monsters, birds, and quadrupeds, without considering the corpses, and aquatic animals left behind by the water reflux. Noticeable iconographic sources include several books of the “Historia Animalium” by Conrad Gesner, and also the “Warachtighe Fabulen der Dieren” by Marcus Gheeraerts. Unlike other 16th century paintings about the same topic, the “Noah’s Ark on Mount Ararat” represents an unexpected core of New World animals composed by two mammals, two “prodigious beasts”, and at least three birds. Inadvertently, Simon de Myle evokes the doubts that existed at this time about Noah’s Ark not being able to house the multitude of zoological species discovered overseas, particularly in the Americas. Mentioned since 1502 by Amerigo Vespucci, this question would be perpetuated throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, leading authors such as Joseph de Acosta (1590) and Athanasius Kircher (1675) to seek a improbable reconciliation between the factual reality observed on the other side of the ocean and the revealed truth exposed in the book of Genesis

Todas as criaturas do mundo: a arte dos mapas como elemento de orientação geográfica

Vague in the outlines and abounding in figures of real or fabulous creatures, the iconography of medieval maps played a significant role in helping users to recognize lands that were virtually unknown to Christendom. In a world with no reliable latitudes and longitudes, the land contours, inhabitants and even certain elements of fauna and flora could become variables of utmost importance for geographic orientation. Notwithstanding the higher levels of precision achieved in their efforts to represent geographic space, the considerable advancements made in latitude determination, and their continuous pursuit of a practical method for the establishment of longitudes, the cartographers of the Age of Discoveries still went to the trouble of depicting notable elements - whether real or imaginary - to help travelers get their bearings around different regions of the globe. As the presence of Europeans continued to expand and an authentic scientific revolution took place in the 17th century, the lengthy notes and eye-catching representations of nature and local inhabitants soon lost their utility as points of reference on 17th-century maps to become mere accessories of aesthetic and commercial value. The advent of the 18th century consolidated, once and for all, the transformation of such illustrations into essentially decorative elements with no other relevant role to play in mapmaking. In addition to decreasing in number, the figures became more stylized and moved to the borders of the maps as ornamental motifs. Although they often maintained some sort of relation with the geographic space depicted on the map, the motifs chosen could also constitute a rather independent element. In fact, allegories, compositions with a variety of mythological figures, and historical representations were often used to underscore the power of certain political agents.Vagos em seu traçado e pródigos em figuras de seres reais ou fabulosos, a iconografia dos mapas medievais cumpria papel nada desprezível para o reconhecimento de terras virtualmente desconhecidas pela Cristandade. Em um mundo sem latitude e longitude confiáveis, os acidentes da paisagem, os povos existentes e até mesmo determinados componentes da fauna e flora poderiam transformar-se em variáveis de extrema importância para a orientação geográfica. Apesar de alcançarem maior precisão nas tentativas de representar o espaço geográfico, experimentarem considerável avanço na determinação da latitude e prosseguirem na busca de um método prático para obter a longitude, os cartógrafos da época dos Grandes Descobrimentos ainda se preocuparam em figurar elementos notáveis - imaginários ou não - capazes de auxiliar na orientação dos viajantes nas mais diferentes regiões do globo. Com a crescente expansão europeia e a autêntica revolução científica em curso no século XVII, os extensos comentários e as vistosas representações da natureza e dos habitantes dos locais perderiam rapidamente o papel de referência nos mapas seiscentistas, conservando apenas seu valor estético e econômico. A chegada do século XVIII consolidaria a definitiva transformação das ilustrações em um elemento essencialmente decorativo, sem qualquer outro papel relevante em termos cartográficos. Além de menos numerosas, as figuras amiúde tendem a uma certa estilização e acentuam seu deslocamento para a periferia dos mapas, que soem apresentar alguma ornamentação apenas nas cártulas ou cartuchos. Apesar de muitas vezes conservarem algum tipo de relação com o espaço geográfico considerado, os motivos escolhidos também podem adquirir relativa independência, havendo numerosos casos de alegorias e composições com variadas figuras mitológicas, bem como representações de caráter histórico destinadas a ressaltar o poderio de um determinado ator político

Remessa de animais de Santa Catarina (1791) para a “Casa dos Pássaros” no Rio de Janeiro e para o Real Museu da Ajuda (Portugal)

The growing interest in Natural Sciences promoted by the Enlightenment would lead Dom Luís de Vasconcellos e Sousa, 4th Count of Figueiró and 12th Viceroy of the State of Brazil, to foster several measures directed both to the urbanization of Rio de Janeiro and to the better knowledge of the Colony’s natural products. He was the creator of the Passeio Público and the so-called Casa dos Pássaros, respectively the first public exhibit of animals and the first natural history museum in the New World. Dom Luís de Vasconcellos e Sousa and his successor, José Luís de Castro, 2nd Count of Resende, the 13th Viceroy of Brazil, received the incumbency of regularly sending specimens of the Brazilian fauna to the “Quintas Reais” and to the Ajuda Museum, in Lisbon. In the particular case of Santa Catarina, an “instruction” was elaborated in 1791, probably by the initiative of Francisco Xavier Cardoso Caldeira – the so-called “Xavier dos Pássaros” – to systematize and orient the collecting process, listing the desired animals and products of animal origin with commercial vale, also providing interesting details about techniques of preservation, packaging for transportation and the price paid for the specimens. Although very concise, this document constitutes a valuable testimony about Brazilian Natural History in the 18th century

Os animais do Brasil nas Obras de Pierre Belon (1517‑1564)

The importance of Pierre Belon (1517‑1564) to Comparative Biology and his famous journey to the East have overshadowed his observations about the New World fauna, which up to now remained almost unnoticed. However, Belon may be lined up among the first natural sciences’ specialists in the Renaissance to describe specimens of the Brazilian fauna, preceding Conrad Gesner and even the testimony of chroniclers such as Hans Staden, André Thevet and Jean de Léry. Out of the ten titles published by Belon along his 47 years of life, six are relevant from that viewpoint, including the books related to his journey to the East and three zoological treatises. Belon alludes to at least eight representatives of the Brazilian fauna (molluscs, fishes, birds and mammals), foremost among them an armadillo (Dasypus sp.) observed by him in the markets of Constantinople. Aside from corroborating the impressive traffic of Neotropical products exhisting in the 16th century, as well as the noticeable interest shown by the Ottoman Empire in the New World, Belon’s texts bear witness, in an eloquent way, to the strong French presence in the Brazilian coast during the first half of the 16th century

Remessas de animais da Bahia, do Maranhão, do Espírito Santo e do Rio de Janeiro para as quintas reais de Lisboa (1762-1807)

In previous articles the zoological material sent to Portugal from the Captaincies of Grão-Pará, Santa Catarina and Pernambuco was studied (repectively by Papavero & Teixeira, 2013a, 2013b and Almeida, Papavero & Teixeira, 2014). In this article, the last of the series, the vertebrates sent to Lisbon from the Captaincies of Bahia, Maranhão, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, fom 1762 to 1807, are considered. Of special interest is the existence of 92 popular names of birds constituting the oldest known citations (termini a quo), some of which could not be identified or only identified down to suprageneric categories