Trade and ethnozoological use of African lorisiformes in the last 20 years

Trade in primates is considered a major impediment to primate conservation globally. The bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa is considered largely unsustainable and represents one of the main threats to biodiversity. Furthermore, the use of primates in traditional practices and medicine includes a third of the African primate species. Little is known about the trade in the African mainland lorisiforms; pottos, angwantibos and galagos. Aiming to fill this knowledge gap we created an online survey, conducted a literature review, and analyzed CITES trade records, focusing on the last two decades. We obtained 188 questionnaire responses from researchers and people working in 31 different countries in sub-Saharan Africa. We found a total of 33 publications reporting on trade in African lorisiforms, and CITES records indicate that almost 2000 lorisiforms were traded internationally from African range countries. Fifty-three percent of respondents provided meaningful details about aspects of the trade in African lorisiforms from 50% of the range countries. Galagos were reported by respondents in larger numbers than pottos and angwantibos, and mainly occurred in the pet trade. Pottos were the most frequently mentioned taxon in the literature, when all trade types were combined. Across all of the sources (online survey, literature and CITES database), trade in pottos and angwantibos was reported from 12 countries, and galagos from 23 countries. Trade was reported to occur mainly within rural settings (64%), potentially indicating that demand is not high enough to fuel long distance trading. However, as seen in the Asian lorisiforms, once quantitative studies were conducted, the threat that trade posed became alarmingly apparent and is now considered a major impediment to their conservation. Our insight into the trade of African lorisiforms should be followed up with concerted studies, with an emphasis on quantifying trade to the species level

The vocal repertoire of golden-faced sakis, Pithecia chrysocephala, and the relationship between context and call structure

Vocalizations are a vital form of communication. Call structure and use may change depending on emotional arousal, behavioral context, sex, or social complexity. Pithecia chrysocephala (golden-faced sakis) are a little-studied Neotropical species. We aimed to determine the vocal repertoire of P. chrysocephala and the influence of context on call structure. We collected data June–August 2018 in an urban secondary forest fragment in Manaus, Amazonian Brazil. We took continuous vocal recordings in 10-min blocks with 5-min breaks during daily follows of two groups. We recorded scan samples of group behavior at the start and end of blocks and used ad libitum behavioral recording during blocks. We collected 70 h of data and analyzed 1500 calls. Lowest frequencies ranged 690.1–5879 Hz in adults/subadults and 5393.6–9497.8Hz in the only juvenile sampled. We identified eight calls, three of which were juvenile specific. We found that, while repertoire size was similar to that of other New World monkeys of similar group size and structure, it also resembled those with larger group sizes and different social structures. The durations of Chuck calls were shorter for feeding contexts compared to hostile, but frequencies were higher than predicted if call structure reflects motivation. This finding may be due to the higher arousal involved in hostile situations, or because P. chrysocephala use Chuck calls in appeasement, similar to behavior seen in other primates. Call structures did not differ between sexes, potentially linked to the limited size dimorphism in this species. Our findings provide a foundation for further investigation of Pithecia vocal behavior and phylogeny, as well as applications for both captive welfare (stress relief) and field research (playbacks for surveys)

Ethnoprimatology of the Shipibo of the upper Ucayali River, Perú

In the Anthropocene, primate conservation can only take place when considering human culture, perspectives, and needs. Such approaches are increasingly important under the growing impact of anthropogenic activities and increasing number of threatened primates. The Amazon rainforest, rich in cultural and biological diversity, where indigenous people play a crucial role in primate conservation, provides ample opportunity to study human–primate interactions and the sociocultural context in which they occur. Human activities threaten the Amazon’s fragile ecosystems and its primates, which play a key role in its maintenance and regeneration. This study focuses on one of the largest indigenous groups in the Peruvian Amazon: the Shipibo. Interviews and participant observation were used to investigate local perceptions of animal presence and depletion, food preferences, and how primates are incorporated into daily life and culture. Since time immemorial and still today, primates remain important in Shipibo culture, mythology, and subsistence. Local Shipibo participants consistently identified the presence of 13 species of primate. Primates were among the preferred species for consumption, pet keeping, and held a fundamental role in mythology, traditional knowledge, and storytelling. Large-bodied primates were often mentioned as being locally extinct, with reports and observations suggesting increasing consumption of smaller-bodied primates. Commonly perceived reasons for primate depletion include noise disturbance, hunting, and population growth, often in parallel. This study sheds light on the cultural context of an area rich in biodiversity, where primates, essential for ecological balance and integral to Shipibo lives and identity, are being depleted. We highlight the need for an inclusive ethnoprimatological approach to conserving primates and preserving indigenous heritage while improving local livelihoods

Keep your distance: Using Instagram posts to evaluate the risk of anthroponotic disease transmission in gorilla ecotourism

1. Mountain gorilla Gorilla beringei beringei trekking is a substantial source of revenue for the conservation of this threatened primate and its habitat. Trekking, however, may pose a threat of human-to-gorilla disease transmission that could have disastrous effects on wild gorillas. 2. We used 858 photographs posted on Instagram in 2013–2019 to analyse the proximity of tourists visiting mountain gorillas in the wild. We classified photographs of the encounters according to the distance between the closest gorilla and human, the age class of the gorilla, the trekking location and presence of a surgical face mask on the tourist. We ran a generalised linear mixed model to test whether these variables influenced the distance between the human and the wild gorillas in the photographs, and to test whether these distances have changed over time. 3. Most sampled photographs (86%) showed tourists within a critical 4 m of the gorillas, with 25 incidents of physical contact between a tourist and a gorilla, and only 3% at the recommended distance of 7 m or more. We only were able to record face mask use in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where these were present in 65% of uploaded photos. 4. Tourists and immature gorillas tended to get closer to each other than tourists and adult gorillas, and this is more pronounced in female tourists than male tourists. The mean distance between human and wild gorillas decreased by ~1 m between 2013 and 2019. 5. The results indicate that existing rules are not enforced and raise attention to this unsustainable aspect of mountain gorilla trekking as it is practiced today. These ever-growing tourist attractions in the range countries pose risks of disease transmission in both directions between tourists and wildlife. The popularity of photograph-based social media may stimulate closer contacts and influence people into risky behaviours. 6. We advocate the establishment and reinforcement of regulations relating to the distance between animals and tourists in any in situ wildlife ecotourism context,as well as campaigns to raise awareness regarding the risks of anthroponosis, and fines applied in case of non-compliance

Technological response of wild macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to anthropogenic change

Anthropogenic disturbances have a detrimental impact on the natural world; the vast expansion of palm oil monocultures is one of the most significant agricultural influences. Primates worldwide consequently have been affected by the loss of their natural ecosystems. Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascilularis) in Southern Thailand have, however, learned to exploit oil palm nuts using stone tools. Using camera traps, we captured the stone tool behavior of one macaque group in Ao Phang-Nga National Park. Line transects placed throughout an abandoned oil palm plantation confirmed a high abundance of nut cracking sites. Long-tailed macaques previously have been observed using stone tools to harvest shellfish along the coasts of Thailand and Myanmar. The novel nut processing behavior indicates the successful transfer of existing lithic technology to a new food source. Such behavioral plasticity has been suggested to underlie cultural behavior in animals, suggesting that long-tailed macaques have potential to exhibit cultural tendencies. The use of tools to process oil palm nuts across multiple primate species allows direct comparisons between stone tool using nonhuman primates living in anthropogenic environments

Insights into the primate trade into the European Union and the United Kingdom

Illegal and/or unsustainable trade is a major obstacle to effective primate conservation. The wildlife trade in the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom (UK) is significant, but for many species, such as primates, the trade is poorly understood and sparsely reported. All EU countries are Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); all primates are listed on Appendix I or II of CITES and are included on Annex A or B of Regulation (EC) No 338/97. We here combine data from several databases (CITES, UN Comtrade, TRAFFIC WiTIS) and seizure reports, to provide a narrative of the trade in primates into and within Europe. The legal import of live primates (2002–2021) amounted to 218,000–238,000 individuals (valued at US$ 869 million), with France, the UK, and Spain as the main importers and Mauritius, Vietnam, and China as the main exporters. Over 21,000 primate parts (trophies, skulls, bodies) were imported mainly from African countries, and UN Comtrade data suggests that ~ 600 tonnes of primate meat was imported mainly from Asia. The vast majority of live primates are either captive-born or captive-bred, and this proportion has increased over time. Reports of the illegal primate trade are far from complete, but the illegal trade of specific species or primate meat can have negative impacts of wild populations of already imperiled species. Stronger policies and more effective enforcement in consumer countries, such as the EU, would also aid in, and garner support for, better protecting primates in primate range states

Low geographic and subspecific variation in the loud call of the widespread and phenotypically cryptic northern lesser galago (Galago senegalensis) suggests taxonomic uniformity

Like other nocturnal primates, many species of galago (Galagidae) are phenotypically cryptic, making their taxonomic status difficult to resolve. Recent taxonomic work has disentangled some of the confusion. This has resulted in an increase in the number of recognised galago species. The most widespread galago species, and indeed the most widespread nocturnal primate, is the northern lesser galago (Galago senegalensis) whose geographic range stretches >7,000 km across Africa. Based on morphology, 4 subspecies are currently recognised: G. s. senegalensis, G. s. braccatus, G. s. sotikae and G. s. dunni. We explore geographic and subspecific acoustic variation in G. senegalensis, testing three hypotheses: isolation by distance, genetic basis, and isolation by barrier. There is statistical support for isolation by distance for 2 of 4 call parameters (fundamental frequency and unit length). Geographic distance explains a moderate amount of the acoustic variation. Discriminant function analysis provides some degree of separation of geographic regions and subspecies, but the percentage of misdesignation is high. Despite having (putative) parapatric geographic ranges, the most pronounced acoustic differences are between G. s. senegalensis and G. s. dunni. The findings suggest that the Eastern Rift Valley and Niger River are significant barriers for G. senegalensis. The acoustic structures of the loud calls of 121 individuals from 28 widespread sites are not significantly different. Although this makes it unlikely that additional unrecognised species occur within G. senegalensis at the sites sampled, vast areas of the geographic range remain unsampled. We show that wide-ranging species do not necessarily exhibit large amounts of variation in their vocal repertoire. This pattern may also be present in nocturnal primates with smaller geographic ranges

Comparative ecology and behaviour of Eastern Potto Perodicticus ibeanus and Central Potto P. Edwardsi in Angola, Cameroon, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda and Uganda

Comparative behavioural research reveals both intra- and inter-species diversity among primates. Few long-term behavioural studies have been conducted on African nocturnal primates. Here we describe and compare behavioural and ecological observations on two species of pottos (Perodicticus ibeanus and P. edwardsi) across ten sites. We observed a total of 51 P. edwardsi and 28 P. ibeanus. We recorded all 21 postures within an established lorisid ethogram, as well as 42 of 50 behaviours. Eating, locomotion, freezing, resting and sniffing were the most common behaviours. We recorded behaviours not previously described for perodicticines, including bark chewing and unique vocalisations. Three species of pottos are now recognised, with potentially more species to be revealed within this cryptic and nocturnal genus. Although there are similarities among potto species, we show that unique ecological adaptations and behaviours may further elucidate their diversity

The next exotic pet to go viral: Is social media causing an increase in the demand of owning bushbabies as pets?

Social media is known to influence consumers’ attitudes and to increase demand for wild animals as pets, when depicted online. We investigate the online presence of the nocturnal primates galagos, on TikTok and Instagram, and its influence on followers’ attitudes and desire to keep galagos as pets. We monitored activity June - December 2020 and conducted sentiment analysis on 21976 comments. We assessed trends in Google searches and estimated the international trade of live galagos using CITES reports. Post views increased up to 472% within the study period. Posts were mostly from Japan, Thailand, and Russia, with comments in 43 different languages. Of the comments, 95% were positive, e.g., "cute"' and "I want one". Google searches of the term "galago pet" increased over time, as did the number of live galagos exported. Southeast Asia is having a boom in exotic pet trade. Viral videos of other nocturnal primates previously led to increased demand for pets, and we hope our findings provide data to guide policy and conservation interventions

Shedding light on the trade in nocturnal galagos

Primates are traded yearly in the tens of thousands for reasons such as biomedical research, as trophies and pets, for consumption and to be used in traditional medicine. In many cases, this trade is illegal, unsustainable and considered a major impediment to primate conservation. Diurnal primates make up the vast majority of this trade, but recent studies have found that the trade in nocturnal primates is more common than previously thought, and among them are the galagos. There are currently 19 galagos recognized but there is still a dearth of research on these species and subspecies. The purpose of our study was to provide a more comprehensive picture of the trade in galagos within and across their African range countries, to help determine whether it is illegal or its sustainability needs to be assessed, and to provide baseline data and management recommendations to better regulate this trade, including strengthening policy, enforcement and conservation interventions. We gathered information on trade and use of galagos using an online questionnaire (May–August 2020), and on country-specific legislation relating to wildlife trade, hunting and legal protection of galagos, and looked at each range country’s Corruption Perception Index score to gain an understanding of the obstacles in the way of effective law enforcement. We received 140 responses to our online questionnaire, from 31 of the 39 galago range countries. Respondents from 16 of these countries reported on first-hand observations of galagos being traded or used. Out of these, 36% reported seeing galagos sold or used for consumption, 33% as pets and 25% had observed them sold or used for traditional practices (including medical and magical purposes and for witchcraft). Most reports came from West Africa followed by Central Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa. We found that the number of reports on galagos being traded was higher in countries with higher numbers of galago species. Countries with more restrictive legislation experienced a higher number of reports of trade. Galagos observed in the pet trade was more common in East Africa, whilst reports of them in the bushmeat trade were more common in Central and West Africa. Galagos observed in the trade for traditional practices was by far most common from West Africa. We found that all galago range countries have some level of legal protection for some or all of their native galago species. It is evident that use and trade of galagos occurs throughout their range, albeit localized to certain areas. We urge galago range countries to adequately protect all species and to ensure legal trade is effectively regulated. Range countries that prohibit the use and trade in galagos must ensure legislation is adequately enforced. Further research into the drivers behind the use and trade of galagos should be initiated in countries with high levels of use and trade to further inform conservation and policy actions and to catalyze enforcement actions against poaching and illegal trade