Greifvögel in den March-Thaya-Auen

Greifvögel sind wichtige Indikatoren für eine intakte Umwelt und gelten als Leit- und Zielarten für Naturschutzanliegen. Im Jahr 2008 wurde in den March-Thaya-Auen eine Untersuchung über die Diversität und Häufigkeit sowie die Habitatwahl der brütenden Greifvogelarten durchgeführt. Das Untersuchungs-Gebiet an der oberen March (19,7 km2) wurde aufgrund der Grenzlage zwischen Österreich, Tschechien und der Slowakei, sowie der ausgeprägten Hochwasserdynamik erst in den 90er Jahren ornithologisch erfasst. Ziel der Studie war ein Vergleich der aktuellen Greifvogelbestände mit den Ergebnissen dieser Kartierungen von ZUNA-KRATKY & CRAIG (1994) und ZUNA-KRATKY (1995). Zusätzlich wurden die Einflüsse der Waldstruktur und der landschaftlichen Gliederung auf die Habitatwahl der Greifvogelarten untersucht. Abschließend wurden Argumente für eine Vertragsverlängerung der 1999 eingerichteten Horstschutzgebiete und Einzelhorstschutzbäume dargelegt und der Vorschlag für ein weiteres Horstschutzgebiet eingebracht. Die Datenaufnahme fand zwischen Jänner und Juli 2008 im Auwald zwischen Hohenau und Drösing im niederösterreichischen Bezirk Gänserndorf statt. Das weitgehend geschlossene Waldgebiet wird in zwei verschiedenen forstlichen Betriebsformen bewirtschaftet. Der nördliche Teil wird als Hochwald geführt, der südliche Teil als Mittel- und Niederwald. Im Winter wurden alle vorhandenen Horste entlang von Transekten in Abständen von 50 m kartiert, wobei 167 Horste gefunden wurden. In der Brutsaison erfolgten mehrmalige Kontrollen der Horstbesetzung und des Bruterfolges. 57 der 167 Horste waren von Greifvögeln besetzt, weitere 11 von Weißstörchen (Ciconia ciconia), 6 von Schwarzstörchen (Ciconia nigra) und 7 von Rabenvögeln (Corvus corax und Corvus corone). Insgesamt wurden 9 Greifvogelarten im Untersuchungsgebiet nachgewiesen. Die häufigste Art ist der Mäusebussard (Buteo buteo) mit 34 besetzten Horsten, gefolgt von der Rohrweihe (Circus aeroginosus) mit 5-6 Brutpaaren. Der Rotmilanbestand (Milvus milvus) von 3 Brutpaaren ist von nationaler Bedeutung. Schwarzmilan (Milvus migrans) (3 Bp.), Wespenbussard (Pernis apivorus) (3 Bp.), Habicht (Accipiter gentilis) (3 Bp.), Turmfalke (Falco tinnunculus) (2 Bp.) und Baumfalke (Falco subbuteo) (2 Bp.) sind weitere Brutvögel im Untersuchungsgebiet. Seit 2002 brütet auch ein Seeadlerpaar (Haliaeetus albicilla) erfolgreich an der oberen March. Zusätzlich brüten Sperber (Accipiter nisus), Sakerfalke (Falco cherrug) und Kaiseradler (Aquila heliaca) in unmittelbarer Umgebung. Die Greifvogelbestände sind seit den 90er Jahren weitgehend stabil. Allein beim Mäusebussard ist eine Bestandszunahme zu verzeichnen, die auf natürliche Schwankungen entsprechend der Mäusegradation und auf die beobachtete Enddynamisierung der Au zurückzuführen ist. Die vorgefundenen Siedlungsdichten an der oberen March sind auch in einem mitteleuropäischen bzw. österreichischen Kontext als hoch einzustufen. Die erhobenen Daten zur Habitatwahl wurden in einem geographischen Informationssystem (GIS) ausgewertet. Die March-Thaya-Auen sind attraktiv für Greifvögel, insbesondere dank der abwechslungsreichen Waldstruktur und dem hohen Anteil an Gewässern und offenen Flächen. Greifvögel bevorzugen Stieleichenüberhälter und zusammenhängende, alte Pappelkulturen als Horstbäume. Diese Baumtypen finden sich im Mittelwald häufiger als im Hochwald. Auch sind im Mittelwald mehr Großhorste zu finden, die wertvoll für Seeadler und Kaiseradler, sowie den Schwarzstorch sind. Darüber hinaus bevorzugen Greifvögel Altholzbestände mit einem hohen Totholzanteil in störungsfreier Lage. Auch stark strukturierte Waldgebiete mit einer ausgeprägten vertikalen Schichtung sind wesentlich. Beide Kriterien können unabhängig von der Forstwirtschaftsform erfüllt werden. Die Ausdehnung der Altholzbestände, die Reduzierung von Störungen durch den Menschen sowie die Dynamisierung der Au durch Revitalisierungsprojekte sind wichtige Schritte für einen langfristigen Erhalt der vielfältigen Greifvogelfauna an der March.It is well known that birds of prey are important indicator species of an intact environment. The diversity, abundance and habitat of breeding raptors in the Austrian March-Thaya flood-plain forests, located in the border area between Austria, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, were studied in 2008. The study area (19.7 km2) had not been explored by ornithologists until the 1990s due to the considerable flood dynamics and the subsequent limited accessibility. The objective of the study was to compare the current status of a range of predatory birds with the findings of ZUNA-KRATKY & CRAIG (1994) and ZUNA-KRATKY (1995a, 1995b). Additionally, a field study was conducted to explore the influence of landscape characteristics and vegetation structure on the habitat choices of birds of prey. The ultimate purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the sanctuaries for birds of prey established in 1999 and to find out whether the declaration of nesting trees as protective sites was an efficient and effective way of protecting predatory birds or whether the underlying criteria needed to be reassessed. The field study was performed between January and July 2008 between Hohenau and Drösing (Lower Austria), consisting of two reference areas of comparable size (about 1000 hectares) but with different cultivation techniques (high forest and middle forest cultivation). Aeries were mapped along transects between 50m intervals, and 167 were found in total. 57 out of 167 aeries were occupied by birds of prey. Additionally, eleven were inhabited by the White Stork (Ciconia ciconia), six by the Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) and another seven by crows (Corvus corone). In total, nine breeding raptor species were recorded. The most abundant species was the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo), occupying 34 aeries, followed by the Marsh Harrier (Circus aeroginosus) with five or six pairs. The Red Kite (Milvus milvus) population, with a quantity of three pairs was significant on a national scale. The Black Kite (Milvus migrans) (three pairs), the Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus) (three pairs), the Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) (three pairs), the Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) (two pairs) and the Hobby (Falco subbuteo) (two pairs) also bred in the study area. Since 2002 the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) has bred successfully in the floodplains. The Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) and the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) were not found in the study area, but were known to breed nearby. The results indicated a population growth of the Common Buzzard, whereas the density of other predatory birds has been steady for the last 15 years. The density is high compared to other places in central Europe, including the Danube floodplains in Austria. Besides, the density seems to be independent from the form of cultivation. Furthermore, the research showed that the preferred area of Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) colonies is also a suitable habitat for birds of prey. The data concerning the habitat structure were analyzed in a Geographic Information System (GIS) and indicate the March-Thaya flood-plain forests as very attractive for raptors. The investigation area offers a varied and structured landscape with abundant waterbodies and meadows. Predatory birds prefer old growth trees, particularly oaks (Quercus sp.) and poplars (Populus sp.) for nesting. These types of trees are numerous in middle forest cultivation. Additionally, a higher number of older aeries can be found there compared to high forest cultivations. Birds of prey prefer a distinctive forest structure with plenty of woody litter, far away from paths or protected by dense shrub and underlayer. Therefore, the conservation of mature forests, the reduction of human disturbance and the reactivation of the flood dynamics could have a positive effect on the raptor population in the long term

Influence of the vegetation structure on the nest-site selection of birds of prey in the March floodplain forests, Lower Austria

Zwischen Januar und Juli 2008 wurden im March-Auwald zwischen Hohenau und Drösing im niederösterreichischen Bezirk Gänserndorf (19,7 km2) systematisch Greifvogelhorste kartiert, und auf Besetzung und Bruterfolg kontrolliert. Im weitgehend geschlossenen Waldgebiet sind zwei unterschiedliche Forstwirtschaftsformen vorrangig. Der nördliche Teil wird als Hochwald (960 ha) geführt, der südliche Teil als Mittel- und Niederwald (1010 ha). Analysen zur Waldstruktur rund um jeden Horstplatz (Mikrohabitat, r=15 m, 706,5 m2), sowie zum Anteil verschiedener Biotoptypen im Kernbereich der Greifvogelreviere (Makrohabitat, r=250 m, 19,6 ha) geben Aufschluss, welche Faktoren die Verbreitung der Greifvögel in den March-Auen beeinflussen. Um einen repräsentativen Querschnitt des vorhandenen Strukturangebots zu erhalten, wurden die Erhebungen in gleicher Art auf 50 zufällig bestimmten Flächen wiederholt. Die erhobenen Daten zur Habitatwahl wurden in einem geographischen Informationssystem ausgewertet. Insgesamt wurden 167 Horste kartiert, davon waren 57 von Greifvögeln besetzt. Die häufigste Art ist der Mäusebussard (Buteo buteo) mit 34 besetzten Horsten, gefolgt von der Rohrweihe (Circus aeroginosus) mit 5-6 Brutpaaren. Der Rotmilanbestand (Milvus milvus) von 3 Brutpaaren ist von nationaler Bedeutung. Schwarzmilan (Milvus migrans), Wespenbussard (Pernis apivorus) und Habicht (Accipiter gentilis) sind mit je 3 Brutpaaren, Turmfalke (Falco tinnunculus) und Baumfalke (Falco subbuteo) mit je 2 Brutpaaren vertreten. Seit 2002 brütet auch ein Seeadlerpaar (Haliaeetus albicilla) erfolgreich im Untersuchungsgebiet. Zusätzlich brüten Sperber (Accipiter nisus), Sakerfalke (Falco cherrug) und Kaiseradler (Aquila heliaca) in den umliegenden Flächen. Die Greifvogelbestände sind seit den 1990er Jahren weitgehend stabil. Allein beim Mäusebussard ist eine Bestandszunahme zu verzeichnen, die auf natürliche Schwankungen entsprechend der Mäusegradation und auf eine Entdynamisierung der Au zurückzuführen ist. Die vorgefundenen Siedlungsdichten der Greifvögel an der March sind auch in einem mitteleuropäischen Vergleich als hoch einzustufen. Die Habitatanalyse hat gezeigt, dass Greifvögel Stieleichenüberhälter und zusammenhängende, alte Pappelkulturen als Horstbäume bevorzugen. Diese Baumarten finden sich im Mittelwald häufiger als im Hochwald. Auch sind im Mittelwald mehr Großhorste zu finden, die wertvoll für Seeadler und Kaiseradler, sowie den Schwarzstorch sind. Darüber hinaus bevorzugen Greifvögel strukturierte Altholzbestände mit einer ausgeprägten vertikalen Schichtung und einem hohen Totholzanteil. Diese Strukturen deuten auf einen geringen forstlichen Nutzen und dadurch eine geringe menschliche Störung der Nistplätze hin. Die genannten Kriterien erfüllen insbesondere eingerichtete Horstschutzgebiete, die frei von forstlicher Nutzung sind. Die Ausdehnung der Altholzbestände, die Reduzierung von Störungen durch den Menschen sowie die Dynamisierung der Au durch Revitalisierungsprojekte sind wichtige Schritte für einen langfristigen Erhalt der vielfältigen Greifvogelfauna der March-Auen.Between Austria, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, were studied in 2008. The study area (19.7 km2) had not been explored by ornithologists until the 1990s due to the considerable flood dynamics and the subsequent limited accessibility. The present field study was performed between January and July 2008 between Hohenau and Drösing (Lower Austria), consisting of two reference areas of comparable size but with different cultivation techniques, i.e. the high forest cultivation in the North (960 ha) and the middle forest cultivation in the South (1010 ha). Additionally, the field study was conducted to explore the influence of the vegetation structure around the nesting site (microhabitat, r=15 m, 706.5 m2) and the landscape characteristics (macrohabitat, r=250 m, 19.6 ha) on the habitat choices of birds of prey. To get a representative sample for comparison, the same data were collected at 50 randomly selected sites. Aeries were mapped along transects between 50 m intervals, and 167 were found in total. 57 out of 167 aeries were occupied by birds of prey. In total, nine breeding raptor species were recorded. The most abundant species was the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo), occupying 34 aeries, followed by the Marsh Harrier (Circus aeroginosus) with five or six pairs. The Red Kite (Milvus milvus) population, with a quantity of three pairs was remarkable on a national scale. The Black Kite (Milvus migrans) (three pairs), the Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus) (three pairs), the Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) (three pairs), the Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) (two pairs) and the Hobby (Falco subbuteo) (two pairs) also bred in the study area. Since 2002 the White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) has bred successfully in the floodplains. The Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) and the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) were not found as breeders in the study area, but were known to breed nearby. The results indicated a population growth of the Common Buzzard, whereas the density of other predatory birds has been steady for the last 15 years. The density is high compared to other places in central Europe, including the Danube floodplains in Austria. Besides, the density seems to be independent from the type of cultivation. The data concerning the habitat structure were analyzed in a Geographic Information System (GIS) and indicate the March flood-plain forests as very attractive for raptors. The investigation area offers a varied and structured landscape with abundant waterbodies and meadows. Predatory birds prefer old growth trees, particularly oaks (Quercus sp.) and poplars (Populus sp.) for nesting. These types of trees are numerous in middle forest cultivation. Additionally, a higher number of older aeries can be found there compared to high forest cultivations. Birds of prey prefer a distinctive forest structure with plenty of deadwood, far away from paths or protected by dense shrub and undergrowth. Therefore, the conservation of mature forests, the reduction of human disturbance and the reactivation of the flood dynamics could have a positive effect on the raptor population in the long term

Urbanisation and nest building in birds: a review of threats and opportunities

SJR would like to thank his undergraduate (Connor Barnes, Clare Davies, Emily Elwell, Corrie Grafton, Jacob Haddon, Claire Herlihy, Derek Law, Eleanor Leanne, Holly Mynott, Penny-Serena Pratt, Anna Smith, Peter Tasker, Alison Wildgoose, Amy Williams and Daniel Woodward) and postgraduate (Richard Bufton, Dan Hunt, Victoria Pattison-Willits and Jen Smith) ‘nest’ students, and Charles Deeming, who have all provided new insights about urban nests over the last few years. MCM thanks Charles Deeming, Tom Martin, Bret Tobalske and Blair Wolf for useful discussions on the topic of urban nesting birds. PS would like to thank the participants of the ‘Human-Raptor Interactions—From Conservation Priorities to Conflict Mitigation’ symposium, Arjun Amar, Daniel Berkowic, Shane McPherson and Steve Redpath for the useful discussions on the topic of urban conservation regarding human–wildlife conflicts. JDI-Á would like to thank Olivia Sanllorente for providing interesting discussions on the topic and her constant support. Finally, we all thank Dan Chamberlain and an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments that improved the manuscript significantly.The world is urbanising rapidly, and it is predicted that by 2050, 66% of the global human population will be living in urban areas. Urbanisation is characterised by land-use changes such as increased residential housing, business development and transport infrastructure, resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation. Over the past two decades, interest has grown in how urbanisation influences fundamental aspects of avian biology such as life-history strategies, survival, breeding performance, behaviour and individual health. Here, we review current knowledge on how urbanisation influences the nesting biology of birds, which determines important fitness-associated processes such as nest predation and community assembly. We identify three major research areas: (i) nest sites of birds in urban areas, (ii) the composition of their nests, and (iii) how these aspects of their nesting biology influence their persistence (and therefore conservation efforts) in urban areas. We show that birds inhabiting urban areas nest in a wide variety of locations, some beneficial through exploitation of otherwise relatively empty avian ecological niches, but others detrimental when birds breed in ecological traps. We describe urban-associated changes in nesting materials such as plastic and cigarette butts, and discuss several functional hypotheses that propose the adaptive value and potential costs of this new nesting strategy. Urban areas provide a relatively new habitat in which to conserve birds, and we show that nestboxes and other artificial nest sites can be used successfully to conserve some, but not all, bird species. Finally, we identify those subject areas that warrant further research attention in the hope of advancing our understanding of the nesting biology of birds in urban areas

Parental morph combination does not influence innate immune function in nestlings of a colour-polymorphic African raptor

Conditions experienced during early life can have long-term individual consequences by influencing dispersal, survival, recruitment and productivity. Resource allocation during development can have strong carry-over effects onto these key parameters and is directly determined by the quality of parental care. In the black sparrowhawk (Accipiter melanoleucus), a colour-polymorphic raptor, parental morphs influence nestling somatic growth and survival, with pairs consisting of different colour morphs ('mixed-morph pairs') producing offspring with lower body mass indices, but higher local apparent survival rates. Resource allocation theory could explain this relationship, with nestlings of mixed-morph pairs trading off a more effective innate immune system against somatic growth. We quantified several innate immune parameters of nestlings (hemagglutination, hemolysis, bacteria-killing capacity and haptoglobin concentration) and triggered an immune response by injecting lipopolysaccharides. Although we found that nestlings with lower body mass index had higher local survival rates, we found no support for the proposed hypothesis: neither baseline immune function nor the induced immune response of nestlings was associated with parental morph combination. Our results suggest that these immune parameters are unlikely to be involved in providing a selective advantage for the different colour morphs' offspring, and thus innate immunity does not appear to be traded off against a greater allocation of resources to somatic growth. Alternative hypotheses explaining the mechanism of a low nestling body mass index leading to subsequent higher local survival could be related to the post-fledgling dependency period or differences in dispersal patterns for the offspring from different morph combinations

Raptor research during the COVID-19 pandemic provides invaluable opportunities for conservation biology

Authors acknowledge financial support from: the Dean Amadon Grant of the Raptor Research Foundation (to PS); the Raptor Research and Conservation Foundation, Mumbai, and the University of Oxford's Global Challenges Research Fund through the Ind-Ox initiative (KCD00141-AT13.01) (both to NK), and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (GBMF9881) and the National Geographic Society (NGS-82515R-20) (both to CR).Research is underway around the world to examine how a wide range of animal species have responded to reduced levels of human activity during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this perspective article, we argue that raptors are particularly well-suited for investigating potential ‘anthropause’ effects, and that the resulting insights will provide much-needed impetus for global conservation efforts. Lockdowns likely alter many of the extrinsic factors that normally limit raptor populations. These environmental changes are in turn expected to influence – mediated by behavioral and physiological responses – the intrinsic (demographic) factors that ultimately determine raptor population levels and distributions. Using this framework, we identify a range of research opportunities and conservation challenges that have arisen during the pandemic. The COVID-19 anthropause allows raptor researchers to address fundamental and applied research objectives in a large-scale, quasi-experimental, well-replicated manner. Importantly, it will be possible to separate the effects of human disturbance and anthropogenic landscape modifications. We explain how high-quality datasets, accumulated for a diverse range of raptor species before, during, and after COVID-19 lockdowns, can be leveraged for powerful comparative analyses that attempt to identify drivers of particular response types. To facilitate and coordinate global collaboration, we are hereby launching the ‘Global Anthropause Raptor Research Network’ (GARRN). We invite the international raptor research community to join this inclusive and diverse group, to tackle ambitious analyses across geographic regions, ecosystems, species, and gradients of lockdown perturbation. Under the most tragic of circumstances, the COVID-19 anthropause has afforded an invaluable opportunity to significantly boost global raptor conservation.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Multigenerational pedigree analysis of wild individually marked black sparrowhawks suggests that dark plumage coloration is a dominant autosomal trait

The black sparrowhawk (Accipiter melanoleucus) is a color-polymorphic sub-Saharan raptor, with adults occurring in two discrete color morphs: dark and light. It has previously been suggested that plumage coloration is determined by a one-locus two-allele system, with the light allele being dominant over the dark allele. Here, we revisit that assumption with an extended dataset of 130 individuals and pedigree information from 75 individuals spanning five generations. We test the observed offspring phenotypic ratio against the expected ratio under the Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium and find significant deviations from the expected values. Contrary to the previous assumption, our data indicate that the dark allele is in fact dominant over the light allele. Similarly, the multigenerational pedigrees obtained are incompatible with a one-locus two-allele system, where the light allele is dominant but are consistent with a scenario where the dark allele is dominant instead. However, without knowledge of the underlying molecular basis of plumage polymorphism, uncertainty remains, and the intra-morph variation observed suggests that modifier genes or environmental factors may also be involved. Our study not only provides a foundation for future research on the adaptive function of color polymorphism in the species but also highlights the need for caution when drawing conclusions about the mode of inheritance in wild animal populations in the absence of genetic data, especially when one color variant is numerically much rarer than the other.</p

Landscape homogenization due to agricultural intensification disrupts the relationship between reproductive success and main prey abundance in an avian predator

Background: Selecting high-quality habitat and the optimal time to reproduce can increase individual fitness and is a strong evolutionary factor shaping animal populations. However, few studies have investigated the interplay between land cover heterogeneity, limitation in food resources, individual quality and spatial variation in fitness parameters. Here, we explore how individuals of different quality respond to possible mismatches between a cue for prey availability (land cover heterogeneity) and the actual fluctuating prey abundance. Results: We analyse timing of breeding and reproductive success in a migratory population of Eurasian kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) breeding in nest-boxes, over a full three-year abundance cycle of main prey (voles), and consider several components of individual quality, including body condition, blood parasite infection, and genetic diversity (n = 448 adults) that act on different time scales. Older individuals, and kestrel parents in higher body condition started egg-laying earlier than younger birds and those in lower body condition. Additionally, egg-laying was initiated earlier during the increase and decrease phases (2011 and 2012) than during the low phase of the vole cycle (2013). Nestling survival (ratio of eggs that fledged successfully) was higher in early nests and in heterogeneous landscapes (i.e., mosaic of different habitat types), which was evident during the increase and decrease phases of the vole cycle, but not during the low vole year. Conclusions: We found a strong positive effect of landscape heterogeneity on nestling survival, but only when voles were relatively abundant, whereas a difference in the timing of breeding related to territory landscape heterogeneity was not evident. Therefore, landscape heterogeneity appeared as the main driver of high reproductive performance under favourable food conditions. Our results show that landscape homogenization linked to agricultural intensification disrupts the expected positive effect of vole abundance on reproductive success of kestrels.</div

Multigenerational pedigree analysis of wild individually marked black sparrowhawks suggests that dark plumage coloration is a dominant autosomal trait

The black sparrowhawk (Accipiter melanoleucus) is a color-polymorphic sub-Saharan raptor, with adults occurring in two discrete color morphs: dark and light. It has previously been suggested that plumage coloration is determined by a one-locus two-allele system, with the light allele being dominant over the dark allele. Here, we revisit that assumption with an extended dataset of 130 individuals and pedigree information from 75 individuals spanning five generations. We test the observed offspring phenotypic ratio against the expected ratio under the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and find significant deviations from the expected values. Contrary to the previous assumption, our data indicate that the dark allele is in fact dominant over the light allele. Similarly, the multigenerational pedigrees obtained are incompatible with a one-locus two-allele system, where the light allele is dominant but are consistent with a scenario where the dark allele is dominant instead. However, without knowledge of the underlying molecular basis of plumage polymorphism, uncertainty remains, and the intra-morph variation observed suggests that modifier genes or environmental factors may also be involved. Our study not only provides a foundation for future research on the adaptive function of color polymorphism in the species but also highlights the need for caution when drawing conclusions about the mode of inheritance in wild animal populations in the absence of genetic data, especially when one color variant is numerically much rarer than the other

Reduced ectoparasite load, body mass and blood haemolysis in Eurasian kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) along an urban-rural gradient

Urbanisation is proceeding at an alarming rate which forces wildlife to either retreat from urban areas or cope with novel stressors linked to human presence and activities. For example, urban stressors like anthropogenic noise, artificial light at night and chemical pollution can have severe impacts on the physiology of wildlife (and humans), in particular the immune system and antioxidant defences. These physiological systems are important to combat and reduce the severity of parasitic infections, which are common among wild animals. One question that then arises is whether urban-dwelling animals, whose immune and antioxidant system are already challenged by the urban stressors, are more susceptible to parasitic infections. To assess this, we studied nestlings of Eurasian kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) in Vienna, Austria, during 2015 and 2017. We measured biomarkers of innate immune function, oxidative stress and body mass index and ectoparasite infection intensity in 143 nestlings (from 56 nests) along an urban gradient. Nestlings in more urbanised areas had overall fewer ectoparasites, lower haemolysis (complement activity) and lower body mass index compared to nestlings in less urbanised areas. None of the other immune or oxidative stress markers were associated with the urban gradient. Despite some non-significant results, our data still suggest that kestrel nestlings experience some level of reduced physiological health, perhaps as a consequence of exposure to more urban stressors or altered prey availability in inner-city districts even though they had an overall lower ectoparasite burden in these heavily urbanised areas.</p

Innate immune function and antioxidant capacity of nestlings of an African raptor covary with the level of urbanisation around breeding territories

Urban areas provide breeding habitats for many species. However, animals raised in urban environments face challenges such as altered food availability and quality, pollution and pathogen assemblages. These challenges can affect physiological processes such as immune function and antioxidant defences which are important for fitness. Here, we explore how levels of urbanisation influence innate immune function, immune response to a mimicked bacterial infection and antioxidant capacity of nestling Black Sparrowhawks Accipiter melanoleucus in South Africa. We also explore the effect of timing of breeding and rainfall on physiology since both can influence the environmental condition under which nestlings are raised. Finally, because urbanisation can influence immune function indirectly, we use path analyses to explore direct and indirect associations between urbanisation, immune function and oxidative stress. We obtained measures of innate immunity (haptoglobin, lysis, agglutination, bactericidal capacity), indices of antioxidant capacity (total non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity (tAOX) and total glutathione from nestlings from 2015 to 2019. In addition, in 2018 and 2019, we mimicked a bacterial infection by injecting nestlings with lipopolysaccharide and quantified their immune response. Increased urban cover was associated with an increase in lysis and a decrease in tAOX, but not with any of the other physiological parameters. Furthermore, except for agglutination, no physiological parameters were associated with the timing of breeding. Lysis and bactericidal capacity, however, varied consistently with the annual rainfall pattern. Immune response to a mimicked a bacterial infection decreased with urban cover but not with the timing of breeding nor rainfall. Our path analyses suggested indirect associations between urban cover and some immune indices via tAOX but not via the timing of breeding. Our results show that early-life development in an urban environment is associated with variation in immune and antioxidant functions. The direct association between urbanisation and antioxidant capacity and their impact on immune function is likely an important factor mediating the impact of urbanisation on urban-dwelling animals. Future studies should explore how these results are linked to fitness and whether the responses are adaptive for urban-dwelling species