Mathematical Modeling Identifies Inhibitors of Apoptosis as Mediators of Positive Feedback and Bistability

The intrinsic, or mitochondrial, pathway of caspase activation is essential for apoptosis induction by various stimuli including cytotoxic stress. It depends on the cellular context, whether cytochrome c released from mitochondria induces caspase activation gradually or in an all-or-none fashion, and whether caspase activation irreversibly commits cells to apoptosis. By analyzing a quantitative kinetic model, we show that inhibition of caspase-3 (Casp3) and Casp9 by inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs) results in an implicit positive feedback, since cleaved Casp3 augments its own activation by sequestering IAPs away from Casp9. We demonstrate that this positive feedback brings about bistability (i.e., all-or-none behaviour), and that it cooperates with Casp3-mediated feedback cleavage of Casp9 to generate irreversibility in caspase activation. Our calculations also unravel how cell-specific protein expression brings about the observed qualitative differences in caspase activation (gradual versus all-or-none and reversible versus irreversible). Finally, known regulators of the pathway are shown to efficiently shift the apoptotic threshold stimulus, suggesting that the bistable caspase cascade computes multiple inputs into an all-or-none caspase output. As cellular inhibitory proteins (e.g., IAPs) frequently inhibit consecutive intermediates in cellular signaling cascades (e.g., Casp3 and Casp9), the feedback mechanism described in this paper is likely to be a widespread principle on how cells achieve ultrasensitivity, bistability, and irreversibility

Small RNAs Establish Delays and Temporal Thresholds in Gene Expression

Non-coding RNAs are crucial regulators of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but it remains poorly understood how they affect the dynamics of transcriptional networks. We analyzed the temporal characteristics of the cyanobacterial iron stress response by mathematical modeling and quantitative experimental analyses, and focused on the role of a recently discovered small non-coding RNA, IsrR. We found that IsrR is responsible for a pronounced delay in the accumulation of isiA mRNA encoding the late-phase stress protein, IsiA, and that it ensures a rapid decline in isiA levels once external stress triggers are removed. These kinetic properties allow the system to selectively respond to sustained (as opposed to transient) stimuli, and thus establish a temporal threshold, which prevents energetically costly IsiA accumulation under short-term stress conditions. Biological information is frequently encoded in the quantitative aspects of intracellular signals (e.g., amplitude and duration). Our simulations reveal that competitive inhibition and regulated degradation allow intracellular regulatory networks to efficiently discriminate between transient and sustained inputs

Recurrent design patterns in the feedback regulation of the mammalian signalling network

Biochemical networks are characterized by recurrent patterns and motifs, but the design principles underlying the dynamics of the mammalian intracellular signalling network remain unclear. We systematically analysed decay rates of 134 signalling proteins and investigated their gene expression profiles in response to stimulation to get insights into transcriptional feedback regulation. We found a clear separation of the signalling pathways into flexible and static parts: for each pathway a subgroup of unstable signal inhibitors is transcriptionally induced upon stimulation, while the other constitutively expressed signalling proteins are long-lived. Kinetic modelling suggests that this design principle allows for swift feedback regulation and establishes latency phases after signalling, and that it might be an optimal design due to a trade-off between energy efficiency and flexibility

Systems-level interactions between insulin–EGF networks amplify mitogenic signaling

Crosstalk mechanisms have not been studied as thoroughly as individual signaling pathways. We exploit experimental and computational approaches to reveal how a concordant interplay between the insulin and epidermal growth factor (EGF) signaling networks can potentiate mitogenic signaling. In HEK293 cells, insulin is a poor activator of the Ras/ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) cascade, yet it enhances ERK activation by low EGF doses. We find that major crosstalk mechanisms that amplify ERK signaling are localized upstream of Ras and at the Ras/Raf level. Computational modeling unveils how critical network nodes, the adaptor proteins GAB1 and insulin receptor substrate (IRS), Src kinase, and phosphatase SHP2, convert insulin-induced increase in the phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP3) concentration into enhanced Ras/ERK activity. The model predicts and experiments confirm that insulin-induced amplification of mitogenic signaling is abolished by disrupting PIP3-mediated positive feedback via GAB1 and IRS. We demonstrate that GAB1 behaves as a non-linear amplifier of mitogenic responses and insulin endows EGF signaling with robustness to GAB1 suppression. Our results show the feasibility of using computational models to identify key target combinations and predict complex cellular responses to a mixture of external cues

Systems biological analyses of intracellular signal transduction

An der Interpretation extrazellulärer Signale beteiligte Regulationsnetzwerke sind von zentraler Bedeutung für alle Organismen. Extrazelluläre Signale werden gewöhnlich durch enzymatische Kaskaden innerhalb weniger Minuten in den Zellkern weitergeleitet, wo sie langsame Änderungen der Genexpression bewirken und so das Schicksal der Zelle beeinflussen. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wird durch mathematische Modellierung untersucht, wie die MAPK Kaskade Signale von der Zellmembran in den Kern weiterleitet. Es wurden Netzwerkeigenschaften herausgearbeitet, die verhindern, dass die MAPK Kaskade fälschlicherweise durch genetische Mutationen aktiviert wird. Desweiteren wurde eine versteckte positive Rückkopplungsschleife identifiziert, welche die Aktivierung der MAPK Kaskade oberhalb eines gewissen Schwellwert-Stimulus verstärkt. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit konzentriert sich darauf, wie Änderungen der Genexpression auf langsamer Zeitskala in das Signalnetzwerk rückkoppeln. Eine systematische Genexpressionsdaten-Analyse ergab, dass transkriptionelle Rückkopplung in Eukaryoten generell über Induktion kurzlebiger Signalinhibitoren geschieht. Dynamische Modellierung und experimentelle Validierung von Modellvorhersagen ergab, dass das Inhibitorprotein SnoN als zentraler negativer Feedback Regulator im TGFbeta Signalweg fungiert. Der dritte Teil der Arbeit untersucht, wie die Genexpressionsmaschinerie intrazelluläre Signale interpretiert (“dekodiert“). Eine experimentelle und theoretische Analyse der cyanobakteriellen Eisenstress-Antwort ergab, dass IsrR, eine kleine regulatorische RNA, die Genexpression auf ausreichend starke und lange Stimulation beschränkt. Des Weiteren wurde ein “Reverse Engineering“-Algorithmus auf Hochdurchsatz-RNAi-Daten angewendet, um die Topologie eines krebsrelevanten Transkriptionsfaktornetzwerks abzuleiten. Zusammenfassend wurde in dieser Dissertation gezeigt, wie mathematische Modellierung die experimentelle Analyse biologischer Systeme unterstützen kann.Intracellular regulatory networks involved in sensing extracellular cues are crucial to all living organisms. Extracellular signals are rapidly transmitted from the cell membrane to the nucleus by activation of enzymatic cascades which ultimately elicit slow changes in gene expression, and thereby affect the cell fate. In the first part of this thesis, the Ras-MAPK cascade transducing signals from the cell membrane to the nucleus is analyzed using mathematical modeling. Model analysis reveals network properties which prevent the MAPK cascade from being inappropriately activated by mutations. Moreover, the simulations unveil a hidden positive feedback loop which ensures strong amplification of MAPK signalling once extracellular stimulation exceeds a certain threshold. The second part of the thesis focuses on how slow gene expression responses feed back into the upstream signalling network. A systematic analysis of gene expression data gathered in mammalian cells demonstrates that such transcriptional feedback generally involves induction of highly unstable signalling inhibitors, thereby establishing negative feedback regulation. Dynamic data-based modelling identifies the SnoN oncoprotein as the central negative feedback regulator in the TGFbeta signalling pathway, and corresponding model predictions are verified experimentally in SnoN-depleted cells. The third part of the thesis focuses on how intracellular signals are decoded by the downstream gene expression machinery. A combined experimental and theoretical analysis of the cyanobacterial iron stress response reveals that small non-coding RNAs allow cells to selectively respond to sufficiently strong and sustained stimuli. Finally, a reverse engineering approach is applied to derive the topology of a complex mammalian transcription factor network from high-throughput knock-down data. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates how mathematical modelling can support experimental analysis of biological systems

Ultrasensitization: switch-like regulation of cellular signaling by transcriptional induction.

Cellular signaling networks are subject to transcriptional and proteolytic regulation under both physiological and pathological conditions. For example, the expression of proteins subject to covalent modification by phosphorylation is known to be altered upon cellular differentiation or during carcinogenesis. However, it is unclear how moderate alterations in protein expression can bring about large changes in signal transmission as, for example, observed in the case of haploinsufficiency, where halving the expression of signaling proteins abrogates cellular function. By modeling a fundamental motif of signal transduction, the phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycle, we show that minor alterations in the concentration of the protein subject to phosphorylation (or the phosphatase) can affect signal transmission in a highly ultrasensitive fashion. This "ultrasensitization" is strongly favored by substrate sequestration on the catalyzing enzymes, and can be observed with experimentally measured enzymatic rate constants. Furthermore, we show that coordinated transcription of multiple proteins (i.e., synexpression) within a protein kinase cascade results in even more pronounced all-or-none behavior with respect to signal transmission. Finally, we demonstrate that ultrasensitization can account for specificity and modularity in the regulation of cellular signal transduction. Ultrasensitization can result in all-or-none cell-fate decisions and in highly specific cellular regulation. Additionally, switch-like phenomena such as ultrasensitization are known to contribute to bistability, oscillations, noise reduction, and cellular heterogeneity