Farmers’ acceptance of insects as an alternative protein source in poultry feeds

The research aimed at assessing the perceptions and willingness of poultry farmers, feed traders and processors to use insects as a source of protein ingredient in poultry feed. The research used a cross-sectional design and a structured questionnaire to collect quantitative data from 287 poultry farmers and 71 feed traders from 3 culturally diverse regions in Uganda. The study findings revealed that majority of the farmers mixed their own poultry feed. Willingness to use insects in poultry feeds was expressed by over 70% of the farmers, feed traders and processors, indicating a strong potential demand for insect-based feeds. However, some poultry farmers doubted the possibility of acquiring insects (rearing/harvesting) in large enough quantities and the consumers’ acceptance of poultry products from birds raised on insect-based feed. Nonetheless, there is a high potential for adoption of insects for use as poultry feed if they can be produced in sustainable quantities that ensure the viability of poultry farming and the feed processing businesses. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. & Tech. 8 (2): 32-41, December, 201

Shelf life, sensorial and nutritional quality of the long-horned grasshopper Ruspolia differens Serville

Introduction: Despite agriculture, which is the main source of income of over 65 % of the population in Uganda, catching and trading in the long-horned grasshopper Ruspolia differens is one of the informal seasonal economic activities in the urban ad rural areas of Uganda. Long-horned grasshoppers swarm in two seasons of March-May and November-December. The latter season may start as early as October or extend into January of the following year. Long-horned grasshoppers are a delicacy in Uganda, commercially harvested, processed and traded majorly in Masaka and Kampala districts of Uganda. Ruspolia differens collected from different parts of East Africa is highly nutritious with 33.3 - 44.3 % crude protein, 46.2 - 54.6 % crude fat, 3.90 - 14.9 % crude fibre, 2.60 - 5.38 % total mineral/ash and 0.01 - 2.60 % carbohydrates, expressed as Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE) (Fombong, Van Der Borght, & Vanden Broeck, 2017; Kinyuru, Kenji, Muhoho, & Ayieko, 2011; Ssepuuya et al. 2016). Additionally, R. differens contains several micro-nutrients such as provitamin A (total carotenoids), other vitamins (vitamin E, C, B2, B3 and B9) and minerals such iron, zinc and calcium (Fombong et al., 2017; Kinyuru et al., 2011; Ssepuuya et al., 2016). However, the R. differens value chain has challenges, the most important of which is the short shelf life of 24 hours post-harvest. Due to this high perishability, harvesters of live R. differens endeavour to (i) keep the temperatures low by harvesting R. differens as early as possible (between 2:00 and 6:00 am), (ii) avoid depletion of oxygen/build-up of carbondioxide and accumulation of heat within the package by aerating the packages, as these conditions often lead to faster death and spoilage of R. differens, (iii) transport R. differens in the cool morning hours and as fast as possible, and (iv) process them into different ready-to-eat forms, for example stir-fried R. differens. However, these efforts are a bid to ensure that the 24-hour period is not exceeded. As a result, when the swarming peaks, the surplus is either diverted to non-food use (fed to domestic birds or animals), lost to spoilage or used to produce poor quality edible R. differens dehydrated products that easily enter into the informal market. The research problem: The approaches used by value chain actors to ensure the quality of R. differens clearly indicate that the value chain actors lacked a proper understanding of the R. differens matrix to enable them apply appropriate measures. Though some intrinsic quality attributes such as the composition of major nutritional components and their profiles were known to some extent, other intrinsic attributes (microbial quality, bacterial composition, key sensory attributes etc.), and the intrinsic properties (such as pH and water activity) weren't. This limited the understanding of how the intrinsic quality attributes and properties interact with each other and with the environment to determine the R. differens' quality and shelf life. As a result, the mechanisms responsible for R. differens' desirable and undesirable (spoiled) quality ware not known and hence, the strategies to improve its quality and shelf life weren't based on adequate scientific information, and hence, inadequate. Aims: This research therefore aimed at: determining (i) the intrinsic properties, microbial quality and bacterial composition of raw Ruspolia differens, (ii) the nutritional composition of Ruspolia differens and the effect of sourcing geographical area and swarming season on its nutrient composition and profile (ii) the effect of processing on the nutrient composition and profile, colour and volatile compounds' composition of R. differens; charactersing (iv) the spoilage mechanisms of raw and processed Ruspolia differens, and (v) the specific spoilage microorganisms of raw and pre-heated Ruspolia differens with high water activity; and (vi) evaluating low-temperature storage and vacuum packaging (VP) as strategies to increase the shelf life of Ruspolia differens Findings: Raw R. differens have a high moisture content (51.11 ± 4.90 %), a high water activity (> 0.97), near neutral pH (6.33 ± 0.20), a high microbial load as exemplified by a high total aerobic count (8.38 - 9.41 log cfu/g), and a high bacterial diversity [1972 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), i.e., individual strains or a group of isolates with high 16S rRNA gene similarity (≥ 97 %) and thus belonging to the same bacterial species]. Genera with OTUs that have high 16S RNA gene similarity to known human pathogens such as Bacillus, Clostridium, Campylobacter, Acinetobacter, and Neisseria among others were also identified. Ruspolia differens contains high amounts of protein (34.23 - 45.76 %), fat (42.21 - 54.33 %), fibre (3.93 - 5.34 %), carbohydrate (4.29 - 6.03 %), minerals (1.79 - 2.72 %) and vitamin B12 (0.73 - 1.35 µg/100 g). The amino and fatty acid profiles, and the trace mineral profile highly contribute to meeting the human nutrient requirements. Besides contributing to meeting the human nutrient requirements, the high nutrient content together with favorable moisture content, pH and water activity promote fast microbial growth, and hence microbial spoilage. Heat processing (boiling for 30 minutes and further roasting at 165 ºC for 30 minutes) has a minimal influence on the nutrient composition except for vitamin B12, phosphorus, potassium and sodium for which significant amounts are lost due to leaching into boiling water. Limonene, 2-pentylfuran, methylketones and aldehydes interact to contribute to the desirable overall aroma of raw, boiled and further roasted R. differens. The lipid oxidation products (methylketones and aldehydes) are hypothesized to be responsible for its boiled and roasted color. Microbial deterioration is responsible for production of polysulphides (dimethyl disulphide and dimethyl trisulphide) that define the aroma of spoiled R. differens with high water activity. More than one group of non-sporulating and/or sporulating microorganisms is involved in R. differens spoilage under aerobic and/or anaerobic conditions. On the other hand, oxidative rancidity is responsible for the production of volatile aldehydes (e.g. hexanal), ketones and organic acids that define the rancid odor of spoiled R. differens with low water activity. Using qualitative descriptive analysis, the aroma is found to be the most distinctive indicator of spoilage. Refrigeration (2 - 5 ºC) of roasted R. differens with 21.3 % and 10.4 % moisture extends the shelf life from 1 day to 25 days and 54 days respectively. Vacuum packaging increases the shelf life of dehydrated (4.5 % moisture) R. differens by 20 weeks (5 months) at room temperature. Therefore, approaches that prevent the progression of the aforementioned spoilage mechanisms can extend the shelf life of R. differens further.status: publishe

Nutrient composition of the long-horned grasshopper Ruspolia differens Serville: effect of swarming season and sourcing geographical area

This research investigates the effect of swarming season and sourcing geographical area on the nutrient composition of R. differens. On a dry matter basis, protein (34.2 - 45.8 %) and fat (42.2 - 54.3 %) are the major macro-nutrients. Leucine (80. 9 - 88.5), lysine (54.0 - 69.8) and valine (59.2 - 61.8) are the most abundant essential amino acids (EAA) (mg/g protein). Tryptophan is the most limiting EAA. Its EAA composition is like the children and adults’ reference protein. Its fat is highly unsaturated (63.5- 64.7). Oleic (38.4 - 42.7), linoleic (19.0 - 23.0) and palmitic (26.6 - 27.8) fatty acids (FA) (g/100 g total FA) are the most abundant. Geographical area significantly influences its mineral content within seasons. Season significantly influences its fat, protein, ash and mineral content but not its AAs’ and FAs’ content. Both factors significantly influence its vitamin B12 content (0.73 - 1.35 µg/100 g).status: publishe

Food waste supply and behaviour towards its alternative uses in Kampala city, Uganda

Abstract Solid waste management is a major challenge in sub-Saharan Africa in general and its food waste component is high and increasing with the rapidly increasing population. Survey data (class p1) collected from households, hotels, restaurants, schools and produce markets were analysed using descriptive and logistic regression analyses for insights into the types and amounts of food waste, and respondents’ attitudes and practices towards its collection, disposal and alternative uses. Households produce the highest amounts of food waste compared to institutions (hotels, schools and restaurants) and produce markets. In a week, about 96, 72, and 93% of all the respondents in households, institutions and produce markets respectively experienced food waste at least one to three times. On average, with a solid waste collection coverage of 45%, households, institutions and markets in Kampala can respectively supply 680, 80, and 8 t of food waste daily. Moulding, poor food storage, food leftovers, food expiry and excess food produce were the major reasons for condemning food to waste. Over 90% of the respondents recognized food waste as a problem, and as a resource especially for use in livestock feed production, and were willing to consume house crickets raised on feed from food waste. Lower levels of education (none, primary and secondary levels), unemployment, and being divorced at household level were positively associated with recognizing food waste as a resource [X2 (21, N = 209) = 137.77, p =  < 0.0001] and re-use for alternative purposes [X2 (21, N = 209) = 47.44, p = 0.001] by households and institutions [X2 (14, N = 92) = 30.97, p =  < 0.019]. Majority of the respondents were willing to donate food waste, especially married people and institutions that have been in existence for a period of 5–10 years

Suitable extraction conditions for determination of total anti-oxidant capacity and phenolic compounds in Ruspolia differens Serville

Recent research on edible insects’ composition has placed more emphasis on the quantity and quality of macro- and micro- nutrients and less emphasis on their bio-active components. This study aimed at assessing the effect of four factors, namely: defatting, solvent type (ethanol, methanol and acetone), solvent concentration (50 %, 75 % and 100 %) and extraction time (15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes) on the extraction efficiency, the total anti-oxidant activity and the amount of total phenolics and total flavonoids of Ruspolia differens. It was not known if the removal of fat (defatting) would influence the total anti-oxidant activity, and the distribution of anti-oxidant compounds in the R. differens matrix. Non-defatting (extraction of fat from the matrix), use of acetone and sonication for 60 minutes are associated with high anti-oxidant activity and high amounts of bio-active compouds extracted. Aqueous acetone (50 %) extracts had the highest average anti-oxidant activity (87.00 ± 2.59 % RSA) while 100 % acetone extracts had the highest average total phenolics (11.14 ± 0.18 GAE/g) and average total flavonoids (3.02 ± 0.21 QE/g) content, indicating the presence of other, possibly highly polar, bio-active compounds in R. differens.status: Published onlin

Status of the regulatory environment for utilization of insects as food and feed in Sub-Saharan Africa-a review

Published online: 02 May 2020A conducive regulatory environment is crucial for ensuring the safety and effective promotion of insects for direct and indirect human consumption. In this review, national and regional policies, regulations, and relevant publications in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) were examined for their take on the use of insects as food and feed. Majority of the SSA countries (91.7%) lacked food safety policies, and of the four countries (8.3%) that had, only one considered the ‘risk-based approach’ for assessing food safety. Two policies, one in Malawi and the other in Tanzania respectively, recognized insects’ use. The lack of regulatory frameworks in most SSA countries is partly attributed to inadequate scientific data regarding insects’ biological, chemical and physical safety. This potentially exposes consumers to health hazards and limits income from insect and insect-based food and feed operations. However, some information and/or data to inform policy, and in a few cases to develop standards, has been generated by several research and development projects in the region. The need for supportive regulations toward the use of insects has been recognized and is being acted upon in a number of SSA countries. For effective promotion of insects as food and feed in SSA, countries need to generate risk assessment data as recommended by Codex Alimentarius and develop and implement relevant standards

The Effects of Harvesting Conditions and Processing on the Nutritional Profile of Ruspolia differens

Wild seasonal edible insects such as Ruspolia differens continue to significantly contribute to the food, nutrition and economic security of many people in Uganda and Africa at large. This research aimed at investigating the effect of season, sourcing geographical area and processing method on the nutrient profile of R. differens. On a dry matter basis, proteins (34.2–45.8%), lipids (42.4–54.3%) and chitin (8.26–10.79%) were the most abundant macronutrients while potassium (242.0–673.3 mg/100 g), phosphorus (316.1–626.6 mg/100 g), calcium (34.9–128.0 mg/100 g), magnesium (38.5–69.0 mg/100 g) and iron (33.2–69.0 mg/100 g) were the most abundant micronutrients. Vitamin B12 ranged from 0.22–1.35 μg/100 g. The full amino acid profile was determined, showing a high biological value. The variability in amino acid composition across the different samples (areas, seasons) was low. Oleic acid (C18:1 cis-9) was the most abundant (38.9–42.7%) fatty acid, followed by palmitic acid (C16:0) (26.6–28.5) and linoleic acid (C18:1 cis-6) (17.6–23.0%), implying that the R. differens fat is highly unsaturated (56.5–65.7%), similar to chicken and pork but higher than beef. R. differens samples from the April season had a significantly higher protein and mineral content than samples from the December season, probably due to the younger growth stage of the grasshoppers. Geographical area also significantly influenced the nutrient content of R. differens but not consistently. Boiling and roasting significantly resulted in the loss of lipids, minerals and vitamin B12. Correspondingly, protein content increased. Understanding the nutrient profile of R. differens will greatly contribute to defining its key quality attributes and inform development of shelf stable products fit for the formal regulated market. Despite R. differens’ potential to contribute to combatting the micro and macro nutrient deficiencies especially for protein and iron, the bio-availability of these nutrients need to be investigated. Efforts to rear R. differens should be harnessed to ensure its sustainable contribution to food, nutrition and income security.status: publishe

Effect of heat processing on the nutrient composition, colour, and volatile odour compounds of the long-horned grasshopper Ruspolia differens serville

Heat processing is commonly used to prepare edible insects for consumption. This study aimed at determining the effect of boiling and subsequent oven roasting on Ruspolia differens’ nutrient composition, colour and odor compounds. Boiling leads to: a significant increase in protein and decrease in fat content on a dry matter basis; a minimal influence on its amino and fatty acids profile; a significant reduction in its ash content due to leaching of phosphorus, potassium and sodium; a significant increase in iron, zinc, copper, manganese and calcium content; and a fivefold reduction in the amount of vitamin B12. Roasting leads to a relative increase in the amount of calcium and trace mineral elements but doesn’t affect other nutrients. Roasting results into a more uniform colour intensity when green and brown polymorphs are roasted together. Lipid oxidation is responsible for the colour and aroma of heat processed R. differens.status: Published onlin

Microbial characterisation of the edible grasshopper Ruspolia differens in raw condition after wild-harvesting in Uganda

This research aimed at establishing the chemical intrinsic properties and the microbial quality of an edible grasshopper Ruspolia differens and the effect of its source (geographical area) in Uganda, trading point, swarming season and plucking on these parameters. The intrinsic properties of the grasshopper can support the growth of a wide variety of microorganisms. High counts of total aerobic microbes, Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, total aerobic spores, and yeasts and moulds were obtained. Metagenetic analyses yielded 1793 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) belonging to 24 phyla. Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria were the most abundant phyla, while members of the genera Acinetobacter, Buttiauxella, Lactococcus, Staphylococcus and Undibacterium were the most abundant OTUs. A number of genera harbouring potential pathogens (Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Buttiauxella, Campylobacter, Clostridium, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas and Neisseria) were identified. The geographical area, trading point, swarming season and plucking significantly influenced microbial counts and bacterial diversity. The high microbial counts predispose R. differens to fast microbial spoilage, while the presence of Clostridium and Campylobacter makes this grasshopper a potential source of food borne diseases. Further research should identify the specific spoilage microorganisms of R. differens and assess the characteristics of this grasshopper that support growth of food pathogens.status: Published onlin

FARMERS’ ACCEPTANCE OF INSECTS AS AN ALTERNATIVE PROTEIN SOURCE IN POULTRY FEEDS

The research aimed at assessing the perceptions and willingness of poultry farmers, feed traders and processors to use insects as a source of protein ingredient in poultry feed. The research used a cross-sectional design and a structured questionnaire to collect quantitative data from 287 poultry farmers and 71 feed traders from 3 culturally diverse regions in Uganda. The study findings revealed that majority of the farmers mixed their own poultry feed. Willingness to use insects in poultry feeds was expressed by over 70% of the farmers, feed traders and processors, indicating a strong potential demand for insect-based feeds. However, some poultry farmers doubted the possibility of acquiring insects (rearing/harvesting) in large enough quantities and the consumers’ acceptance of poultry products from birds raised on insect-based feed. Nonetheless, there is a high potential for adoption of insects for use as poultry feed if they can be produced in sustainable quantities that ensure the viability of poultry farming and the feed processing businesses