A major step towards defining the elusive stumpy inducing factor in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei stumpy forms are the only stage that can transmit from human to tsetse fly. Stumpy formation is regulated by a quorum sensing mechanism that depends on parasite density and an unknown stumpy induction factor (SIF). Recently, an elegant study by Matthews and colleagues (Cell 176, 1-12) has identified several crucial components of this pathway, including the putative SIF and its receptor

Probing Plasmodium falciparum sexual commitment at the single-cell level

Background: Malaria parasites go through major transitions during their complex life cycle, yet the underlying differentiation pathways remain obscure. Here we apply single cell transcriptomics to unravel the program inducing sexual differentiation in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasites have to make this essential life-cycle decision in preparation for human-to-mosquito transmission. Methods: By combining transcriptional profiling with quantitative imaging and genetics, we defined a transcriptional signature in sexually committed cells. Results: We found this transcriptional signature to be distinct from general changes in parasite metabolism that can be observed in response to commitment-inducing conditions. Conclusions: This proof-of-concept study provides a template to capture transcriptional diversity in parasite populations containing complex mixtures of different life-cycle stages and developmental programs, with important implications for our understanding of parasite biology and the ongoing malaria elimination campaign

Genetic and transcriptional analysis of phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C in Plasmodium

Phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) is a major regulator of calcium-dependent signal transduction, which has been shown to be important in various processes of the malaria parasite Plasmodium. PI-PLC is generally implicated in calcium liberation from intracellular stores through the action of its product, inositol-(1,4,5)-trisphosphate, and is itself dependent on calcium for its activation. Here we describe the plc genes from Plasmodium species. The encoded proteins contain all domains typically found in PI-PLCs of the δ class but are almost twice as long as their orthologues in mammals. Transcriptional analysis by qRT-PCR of plc during the erythrocytic cycle of P. falciparum revealed steady expression levels that increased at the late schizont stages. Genetic analysis in the P. berghei model revealed that the plc locus was targetable but that plc gene knock-outs could not be obtained, thereby strongly indicating that the gene is essential during blood stage development. Alternatively, we attempted to modify plc expression through a promoter exchange approach but found the gene to be refractory to over-expression indicating that plc expression levels might additionally be tightly controlled

Probing Plasmodium falciparum sexual commitment at the single-cell level [version 3; referees: 2 approved]

Background: Malaria parasites go through major transitions during their complex life cycle, yet the underlying differentiation pathways remain obscure. Here we apply single cell transcriptomics to unravel the program inducing sexual differentiation in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasites have to make this essential life-cycle decision in preparation for human-to-mosquito transmission. Methods: By combining transcriptional profiling with quantitative imaging and genetics, we defined a transcriptional signature in sexually committed cells. Results: We found this transcriptional signature to be distinct from general changes in parasite metabolism that can be observed in response to commitment-inducing conditions. Conclusions: This proof-of-concept study provides a template to capture transcriptional diversity in parasite populations containing complex mixtures of different life-cycle stages and developmental programs, with important implications for our understanding of parasite biology and the ongoing malaria elimination campaign

Plasmodium falciparum adapts its investment into replication versus transmission according to the host environment

The malaria parasite life cycle includes asexual replication in human blood, with a proportion of parasites differentiating to gametocytes required for transmission to mosquitoes. Commitment to differentiate into gametocytes, which is marked by activation of the parasite transcription factor ap2-g, is known to be influenced by host factors but a comprehensive model remains uncertain. Here, we analyze data from 828 children in Kilifi, Kenya with severe, uncomplicated, and asymptomatic malaria infection over 18 years of falling malaria transmission. We examine markers of host immunity and metabolism, and markers of parasite growth and transmission investment. We find that inflammatory responses associated with reduced plasma lysophosphatidylcholine levels are associated with markers of increased investment in parasite sexual reproduction (i.e. transmission investment) and reduced growth (i.e. asexual replication). This association becomes stronger with falling transmission and suggests that parasites can rapidly respond to the within-host environment, which in turn is subject to changing transmission

Phenotypic screens identify genetic factors associated with gametocyte development in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum

Transmission of the deadly malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum from humans to mosquitoes is achieved by specialized intraerythrocytic sexual forms called gametocytes. Though the crucial regulatory mechanisms leading to gametocyte commitment have recently come to light, networks of genes that control sexual development remain to be elucidated. Here, we report a pooled-mutant screen to identify genes associated with gametocyte development in P. falciparum. Our results categorized genes that modulate gametocyte progression as hypoproducers or hyperproducers of gametocytes, and the in-depth analysis of individual clones confirmed phenotypes in sexual commitment rates and putative functions in gametocyte development. We present a new set of genes that have not been implicated in gametocytogenesis before and demonstrate the potential of forward genetic screens in isolating genes impacting parasite sexual biology, an exciting step toward the discovery of new antimalarials for a globally significant pathogen

Plasmodium falciparum adapts its investment into replication versus transmission according to the host environment

The malaria parasite life cycle includes asexual replication in human blood, with a proportion of parasites differentiating to gametocytes required for transmission to mosquitoes. Commitment to differentiate into gametocytes, which is marked by activation of the parasite transcription factor ap2-g, is known to be influenced by host factors but a comprehensive model remains uncertain. Here we analyze data from 828 children in Kilifi, Kenya with severe, uncomplicated, and asymptomatic malaria infection over 18 years of falling malaria transmission. We examine markers of host immunity and metabolism, and markers of parasite growth and transmission investment. We find that inflammatory responses associated with reduced plasma lysophosphatidylcholine levels are associated with markers of increased investment in parasite sexual reproduction (i.e., transmission investment) and reduced growth (i.e., asexual replication). This association becomes stronger with falling transmission and suggests that parasites can rapidly respond to the within-host environment, which in turn is subject to changing transmission

DNA replication dynamics and pre-replication complex in Leishmania : implementation of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in this divergent eukaryote

Leishmania est un parasite eucaryote divergent responsable d’un large spectre de maladies à travers le monde. Ce parasite est caractérisé par une aneuploïdie mosaïque, constitutive, c’est-à-dire qu’au sein d’une population chaque cellule comporte une combinaison unique de mono-, di- et trisomies de chacun de ses 36 chromosomes. L’aneuploïdie mosaïque est générée et maintenue chez les générations suivantes grâce à un taux élevé de répartition asymétrique des chromosomes lors de la mitose, entrainant le gain ou la perte de chromosomes entiers. Ceci implique une régulation non-conventionnelle de la réplication, suivie d’une ségrégation permissive des chromosomes.L’objectif général de cette étude était de comprendre la dynamique de la réplication de l’ADN ainsi que de cartographier les sites d’initiation de la réplication chez Leishmania, en utilisant la technique du peignage moléculaire d’une part et celle du ChIP-seq d’une autre part. Nous avons ainsi pu caractériser les différents paramètres de progression de la fourche de réplication. Un des résultats majeurs qui ressort de cette étude est que Leishmania possède les plus grandes distances inter-origines et la plus grande vitesse de réplication parmi les autres eucaryotes déjà étudiés. Nous avons également pu estimer que le génome de Leishmania possède environ 168 origines de réplication. Afin d’étudier les acteurs impliqués dans la réplication de l’ADN chez Leishmania, nous avons développé l’outil génétique CRISPR/Cas9. Pour développer cet outil, nous avons basé notre approche sur une stratégie à deux vecteurs : l’un permet l’expression du single guide (sg)RNA et l’autre celle de l’endonucléase Cas9. La validation de cet outil génétique a été réalisée par le knock-out du locus PFR2 codant une protéine flagellaire. Dans un second temps, nous avons fait évoluer le CRISPR/Cas9 vers un système inductible pour réaliser les knock-out et des étiquetages au locus endogène de protéines d’intérêt. Nous avons utilisé ce nouveau système pour étudier la fonction de deux protéines potentiellement impliquées dans le complexe de reconnaissance des origines de réplication. Malgré une fuite du système, nous avons pu réaliser le KO des gènes Orc1b et Orc1/Cdc6 et suivre la progression du cycle cellulaire. Nous avons pu constater que la perte de ces gènes conduisait à un défaut de croissance ainsi qu’à l’apparition de cellules sans noyau. L’insertion d’une étiquette au locus endogène d’Orc1b nous a parmi de confirmer la localisation que nous avions obtenue avec une construction épisomale et va permettre d’étudier plus précisément le rôle de cette protéine.En conclusion, nous avons mis en évidence des paramètres de réplication originaux et démontré, en utilisant le CRISPR/Cas9, que les protéines Orc1b et Ocr1/Cdc6 étaient impliquées dans la duplication du noyau de Leishmania, ce qui est en accord avec leur rôle putatif dans la réplication de l’ADN.Leishmania, a protozoan parasite which causes a large range of diseases worldwide, is characterized by a constitutive 'mosaic aneuploidy', i.e. each cell in a population possesses a unique combination of mono-, di- and trisomies for each of its 36 heterologous chromosomes. Mosaic aneuploidy is generated and maintained via high rates of asymmetric chromosomal allotments during mitosis, leading to the gain or loss of whole chromosomes. This implies an unconventional regulation of the replication, followed by a permissive segregation.The main objective of this study was to unravel DNA replication dynamics and to map the replication initiation sites in Leishmania using DNA combing and ChIP-seq analyses. First, we have characterized DNA replication fork parameters. One of the major findings of this study was that Leishmania exhibits the fastest replication speed and the largest interorigin distances among the eukaryotes tested so far. We have also estimated that the Leishmania major genome possesses 168 origins of replication.To study the actors involved in DNA replication, we first had to develop novel genetic tools. The CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR associated endonuclease 9) system is a recently discovered powerful technique for genome editing. In order to adapt this system to Leishmania, we have chosen a two-plasmid strategy: one for the expression of the single guide (sg) RNA and a second for the expression of the endonuclease CAS9. The proof of concept has been based on the disruption of the paraflagellar rod-2 (PFR2) loci by the CRISPR-Cas9 system. In a second attempt, we have developed an inducible CRISPR-Cas9 system, both to obtain knock outs and to perform marker-free endogenous gene tagging. We used the system to investigate the function of Origin Recognition Complex proteins. Although the system was leaky, the genome was edited as expected. We thus deleted Orc1b and Orc1/Cdc6 and monitored the cell cycle progression of the parasite. We found that the depletion of these nuclear proteins lead to a growth defect and to the appearance of zoids (anucleated cells). The endogenous tagging of Orc1b confirmed the localization previously obtained using an episomal expression vector, and will allow further investigation on the role of this protein.In total, we have shown the presence of original replication dynamics parameters in Leishmania, and using CRISPR Cas9, we have demonstrated that Orc1b and Orc1/Cdc6 are involved in the nuclear duplication of Leishmania, in agreement with their putative in DNA replication