Risk of brown bear predation on semi-domesticated reindeer calves

As large carnivore populations are recovering in northern boreal ecosystems of Europe and North America, there is a need to understand how these changes in predator communities influence prey populations and ecosystems. Moreover, human-wildlife conflicts are frequently causing challenges where large carnivores coexist with humans, often due to predation on livestock. In Sweden the brown bear (Ursus arctos) distributional range largely overlaps with the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) herding area, but knowledge of potential losses to bear predation has been scarce. Also, little information exists on the behavioral interactions between semi-domesticated reindeer and brown bears in Fennoscandia. In this thesis I present data from two forest reindeer herding districts in Northern Sweden, showing that brown bear predation on reindeer neonates can be considerable on forested calving grounds. Also, brown bear predation was very limited in time, concentrated to the first weeks following birth of the reindeer calves. Moreover, using GPS location data to compare brown bear and reindeer resource selection on the reindeer calving ground, indicated that brown bear behavioral adjustments to search for reindeer possibly dominate over antipredator responses by reindeer in terms of altered resource selection on a daily and seasonal basis. Nevertheless, a closer investigation of the spatial distributions of reindeer calf kill sites suggested that use of clear-cuts, higher elevations and areas closer to large roads may reduce risk of bear predation. However, even though clear-cuts may provide advantages for survival in the short term, logging may eventually yield negative effects for the reindeer, as abundance of young forest increase, which is a preferred habitat by brown bears. Finally, using data on reindeer movements and brown bear density from seven herding districts in Sweden I show that reindeer females experiencing higher risk of bear predation, deviate more from optimal foraging and increase movement rates, which may lead to lower body condition and, in turn, possible consequences for population dynamics

Brown bear predation on semi-domesticated reindeer and depredation compensations

The recovery and conservation of large carnivores can negatively impact the economy of traditional pastoralist societies, including indigenous reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) herding communities. Quantifying the magnitude of predation on livestock is critical to evaluating governmental carnivore compensation schemes. We collaborated with two Sami herding communities in northern Sweden (2010–2012) to examine brown bear (Ursus arctos) predation patterns on semidomesticated reindeer and quantify the economic impact of bear predation. Predation patterns were estimated by following 21 GPS proximity- collared bears and ~2500 transmitter-collared female reindeer during calving season. We calculated economic impact by multiplying the monetary value of reindeer by the expected number lost to bears. On average, bears killed 10.2 [8.6, 11.5] calves per bear, accounting for 39− 62% of all calf mortality, while few adult reindeer were killed. Bear kill rates increased with time spent in the calving area, and varied widely by individual and reproductive status, e.g., females with cubs-of-the- year did not kill calves. Kill intervals increased over the parturition season, and were larger for sub-adults than adults. The mean reindeer calf predation rate was 16–27%, which resulted in an annual loss between ~€50,000 and ~€62,000 per herding group. Current compensation schemes for herding communities in Sweden are calculated as a fixed rate based on herding community land-area. The herding groups in our study were reimbursed for ~2% of realized monetary loss. Compensation schemes based on herding community area, rather than realized predation patterns, may be less effective at mitigating the economic impact of living with large carnivores. Compensation Depredation Economic impact Proximity collars Indigenous communities PastoralismpublishedVersio

The influence of natural and anthropogenic factors in Rangifer movements and habitat use

Rangifer tarandus (reindeer and caribou) is a circumpolar species inhabiting the Arctic and sub-arctic regions of Eurasia and North America. It is a key species in the northern hemisphere and has for centuries been a vital resource for many communities and indigenous peoples in the Arctic. In Fennoscandia most reindeer are semi-domesticated, while smaller herds of wild reindeer exist in mountainous areas in southern Norway and forested areas in eastern Finland. Reindeer herding forms a basis for the Sámi cultural heritage and is an essential economic income to many people within the Sámi society in Fennoscandia. In accordance with international agreements, there is a management goal in Norway and Sweden to ensure the livelihood of the Sámi people, including a sustainable reindeer husbandry, alongside with conservation of landscapes and biodiversity (Nilsson-Dahlström 2003). Although reindeer are domesticated they are freely ranged within the borders of the herding districts, and their behaviour and habitat selection are comparable to wild reindeer and caribou. Rangifer have developed in areas with high spatial and temporal heterogeneity in resource availability. Throughout the year the animals follow the seasonal changes in forage quantity and quality, and depend on access to large heterogeneous land areas to meet their energetic demands (Klein 1970). A constantly increasing infrastructure development has largely changed the terms for the reindeer and the reindeer husbandry in Fennoscandia. Further challenges are caused by the recent 20-30 years of growing predator populations, with a consequent need for management to find compromises between the conflicting interests of carnivore conservation and a sustainable reindeer husbandry. The main predators of semi-domesticated reindeer in Fennoscandia are the large carnivores: lynx (Lynx lynx), wolverine (Gulo gulo), brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolves (Canis lupus) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Direct losses of reindeer to predation can be substantial (Danell 2011, Hobbs et al. 2012). However, the total effect of predation on herd productivity is still subject to debate. Also, we lack knowledge about behavioural interactions with predators and antipredator strategies in semi-domesticated reindeer. Anthropogenic activity and infrastructure development is threatening Rangifer in large parts of its range. Human development can cause habitat loss by direct cover of areas, 7 indirectly from avoidance effects or by making movements barriers. This can lead to important transport corridors being cut off, and loss of feeding grounds and critical habitats such as calving areas. Changes in foraging conditions do not only have immediate effects on the animal but also affect future performance and its progeny during several years ( Gaillard et al. 2000). The aim of the present review is to give an overview of the existing knowledge of Rangifer foraging and antipredator behaviour, and impact of human disturbance on Rangifer habitat use. As a theoretical framework I briefly summarize the main theories of foraging and antipredator behaviour in ecology. Finally I discuss the current and future challenges and knowledge gaps related to management of reindeer herding areas in Fennoscandia

Utvikling av planleggingsverktøy for en arealdiffe-rensiert jerveforvaltning i Sør-Norge

Sivertsen, R.T., Mattisson, J., Blumentrath, S., Rauset, G.R., Flagstad, Ø. og Odden, J. 2018. Utvikling av planleggingsverktøy for en arealdifferensiert jerveforvaltning i Sør-Norge. NINA Rapport 1538. Norsk institutt for naturforskning. Store deler av Norge er potensielt habitat for jerv. Konflikter rundt jervens predasjon på sau og tamrein har ført til at forvaltningen benytter seg av geografisk differensiert forvaltning. Reduserte konflikter med beitedyr avhenger av at områdene med husdyrproduksjon skilles geografisk fra områder hvor rovdyra sikres vern. Dagens regionalt baserte soner for jerv har fra et jerveøkologisk synspunkt vist seg å være for små og isolerte, og vil ikke kunne omfavne så store leveområder som jerven krever. Høsting av små bestander er også vanskelig da tilfeldige hendelser i bestanden kan ha uforholdsmessig store effekter på antall jerv. Rovviltnemnda i Oppland fikk derfor i oppdrag fra Klima- og miljødepartementet å koordinere et arbeid der forvaltningen av den sørnorske jerven skulle samordnes mellom regionene. I arbeidet med å finne akseptable kompromiss for plassering av en mulig felles sørnorsk jervesone vil ulike hensyn vektlegges mot hverandre. I 2017 fikk NINA i oppdrag av rovviltnemndene å benytte arealplanleggingsverktøy som skal kunne bidra i planleggingen av en eventuell felles sørnorsk jervesone. Arealplanleggingsverktøy gjør det mulig å integrere lokale forhold og verdibaserte hensyn på en systematisk måte. Disse verktøyene kan håndtere et stort antall enheter og faktorer som det skal tas hensyn til, og der antall mulige kombinasjoner blir så høyt at en matematisk sammenlikning av ulike scenarioer ikke kan gjøres manuelt. Vi presenterer i denne rapporten hvordan ulike scenarioer for en mulig felles sørnorsk jervesone kan se ut. Resultatet av analysene og plassering av ulike forvaltningssonealternativer vil nødvendigvis avhenge av hvilke hensyn og datagrunnlag som benyttes i beregningene. Vi har derfor diskutert valg av parameter, valg av målsettinger, beregning av sosioøkonomiske kostnader, og aktuelle begrensinger på en framtidig jervesone både med forvaltningen og de politisk sammensatte rovviltnemdene i rovviltregionen 1,3 og 6. Vi har gjort en trinnvis tilnærming der flere faktorer gradvis legges til i ulike scenario. Samtlige scenarioer inkluderte krav om at det skal være én sammenhengende jervesone, og at denne sonen er stor nok og inneholde nok jervehabitat til at dagens bestandsmål kan innfris. Vi benyttet tetthet av lam og rein innenfor ulike områder som et mål på relative kostnader knyttet til tap av beitedyr til jerv. Vi presenterer også scenarioer hvor man tar hensyn til målsetting om forekomst av jerv med unike alleler, og scenarioer der vi tar hensyn til målsetting om forekomst av jerv i nasjonalparker og villreinområder. I analysene har vi benyttet to tilnærminger. En tilnærming der plassering av sonen skal innfri gitte målsettinger, samtidig som kostnader skal være så lave som mulig, og en tilnærming der plassering av sonen søker å innfri så mye av elementene som inngår i målsettingene som mulig uten å overstige en maksimumsgrense for kostnader. Scenarioene presentert kan benyttes som et grunnlag for en videre diskusjon før endelig konklusjon fattes i et politisk krevende spørsmål. Vi demonstrerer hvordan ulike målsettinger og verdisettinger av kostnader påvirker en potensiell utforming av jervesonen. En sensitivitetsanalyse angir noen områder av stor betydning der kostnadene synes å være de laveste uavhengig av hvilke scenarioer som ble testet. Disse områdene omfattet de sentrale og nordligvestlige deler av Hedmark og grenseområdene mellom Oppland og Trøndelag/Møre- og Romsdal. GIS-baserte arealplanleggingsverktøy har et betydelig potensiale for bruk i planlegging av ulike former for arealdifferensiert rovviltforvaltning, som fordeling av bestandsmål og rovdyrsoner, i tillegg til andre arealbaserte problemstillinger innen naturforvaltningen i Norge.Sivertsen, R.T., Mattisson, J., Blumentrath, S., Rauset, G.R., Flagstad, Ø. and Odden, J. 2018. Development of conservation planning tools for a geographically differentiated management system for wolverines in Southern Norway. NINA Report 1538. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. Large parts of Norway have potential habitat for wolverines. Conflicts related to wolverine predation on sheep and semi-domestic reindeer in Norway have, however, led to a geographically differentiated management (zoning) system. But today's regional management zones for wolverines have proven to be too small and isolated to embrace the large home ranges of the wolverine. In addition, it is almost impossible to manage populations, with any degree of precision, when the set regional goals are restricted to very few individual animals. Management of small sub-populations are also difficult as single random events may have disproportionately large effects on the population trends. Therefore, the Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment commissioned the regional large carnivore management board in Oppland to try to improve the level of coordination between the different regions that together hold the responsibility for the management of the southern Norwegian wolverine population. There are many trade-offs in the process of deciding size and placement of such a management zone. In 2017, NINA was asked by the management board, to develop a conservation planning tool that could contribute to the process of selecting a wolverine management zone for south Norway. Conservation planning tools can integrate local conditions and value-based considerations systematically using planning units that summarize conservation features and potential socioeconomic costs. Selection and weighting of parameters that are included in objectives and socioeconomic costs, scenario building, and current constraints on the zone are based on an earlier report on the ecology, population status and genetics of wolverines in south Norway. In addition, we continuously received inputs during the process from dialogue with the regional management boards. We here present how the tool can be used to calculate different scenarios for a possible common management zone for all of regions in South Norway. In the analyses, we used two alternative approaches. The approach "Cost minimization", means that the placement of the zone must meet certain objectives while, at the same time, reduce the socio-economic costs. The approach “Cost limit” means that the placement of the zone seeks to achieve as much of certain selected objectives as possible without crossing a defined maximum limit for socioeconomic costs. All scenarios were based on an objective of a total area of sufficient wolverine habitat, large enough to meet the set population goals. To estimate costs, we used the density of lamb and reindeer within the planning units as a proxy for potential loss of livestock. In addition, there are some unique genotypes (two micro-alleles) found mainly in the western part of the southern Norway wolverine population, and we present scenarios that involves the presence of wolverines with these unique alleles. Finally, we also incorporate scenarios where we consider an objective of wolverines being present within national parks and wild reindeer areas. The scenarios presented here can be used as a basis for further discussions before a conclusion is reached for this politically demanding question. We demonstrate how different objectives and value settings affect the potential design of a zone. A sensitivity analysis specifies a "core area" where the socioeconomic costs appear to be the lowest regardless of the scenarios tested. We based our analyses on a minimum requirement on area size to include enough wolverine habitat to achieve today's populations goals for wolverines in South Norway. It is a political discussion whether it is desirable to concentrate the zone as much as possible, or spreading the wolverine population, and thus the costs, over a larger area. A larger zone may have positive consequences for any other interest, such as increased occurrence of wolverines in Norwegian na-tional parks and wild reindeer areas in South Norway. Our consideration is that the conservation planning tool presented in this report represents a considerable potential for further use in discussions regarding large carnivore management zones and other spatial-based challenges within nature management

Brown bear predation on semi-domesticated reindeer and depredation compensations

The recovery and conservation of large carnivores can negatively impact the economy of traditional pastoralist societies, including indigenous reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) herding communities. Quantifying the magnitude of predation on livestock is critical to evaluating governmental carnivore compensation schemes. We collaborated with two Sami herding communities in northern Sweden (2010–2012) to examine brown bear (Ursus arctos) predation patterns on semidomesticated reindeer and quantify the economic impact of bear predation. Predation patterns were estimated by following 21 GPS proximity- collared bears and ~2500 transmitter-collared female reindeer during calving season. We calculated economic impact by multiplying the monetary value of reindeer by the expected number lost to bears. On average, bears killed 10.2 [8.6, 11.5] calves per bear, accounting for 39− 62% of all calf mortality, while few adult reindeer were killed. Bear kill rates increased with time spent in the calving area, and varied widely by individual and reproductive status, e.g., females with cubs-of-the- year did not kill calves. Kill intervals increased over the parturition season, and were larger for sub-adults than adults. The mean reindeer calf predation rate was 16–27%, which resulted in an annual loss between ~€50,000 and ~€62,000 per herding group. Current compensation schemes for herding communities in Sweden are calculated as a fixed rate based on herding community land-area. The herding groups in our study were reimbursed for ~2% of realized monetary loss. Compensation schemes based on herding community area, rather than realized predation patterns, may be less effective at mitigating the economic impact of living with large carnivores. Compensation Depredation Economic impact Proximity collars Indigenous communities Pastoralis