Particle formation in premixed ethylene-benzene flames: An experimental and modeling study

Abstract In this work soot formation was studied in laminar premixed flames of binary ethylene-benzene mixtures varying throughout the composition range from pure ethylene to pure benzene keeping constant the equivalence ratio (φ = 2) and obtaining a very similar maximum temperature (Tmax around 1750 K). In such way, it was possible to study for the first time the effect of binary aliphatic-aromatic fuel mixtures composition on the sooting behavior in comparable combustion conditions. In-situ optical techniques (laser induced incandescence and fluorescence) and ex-situ particle size distribution (PSD) measured downstream of the flame front, as well as modeling by means of a multi-sectional method, were applied. PSD profiles showed that particles with sizes less than 10 nm decrease as benzene percentage in the feed mixture increases, disappearing for benzene percentages above 30%. Conversely, large aggregates grow towards sizes larger than 100 nm when benzene concentration is increased. A non-linear effect of the benzene content in the binary fuel mixture on soot particle concentration was observed by laser induced incandescence, and confirmed by the multi-sectional model. In particular soot formation was found to increase more than linear up to 50% then leveled off to reincrease linearly from 80% to 100%. On the contrary, particles smaller than 10 nm at the end of the flame rapidly decreased for benzene percentages larger than 30%. From reaction rate analysis, the formation of gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and high-molecular mass aromatics precursors was found to be significantly large already for fuel mixtures featured by low benzene amounts (from 10 up to 40–50%). The enhanced aromatic precursor formation, combined with the abundance of acetylene mainly coming from the dehydrogenation of ethylene as predominant component of the binary fuel mixture, appeared to be responsible for the non-linear effect of ethylene-benzene composition on particle formation, particularly significant up to 40–50% of benzene. This finding has a considerable importance as regards the exploitation of highly-aromatic fuels as well as to foresee the soot emission for effect of the aromatic presence in natural and synthetic fuels used in practical combustion systems

The effect of butanol isomers on the formation of carbon particulate matter in fuel-rich premixed ethylene flames

Abstract The effect of the butanol isomers on carbon particulate matter formation was studied by substituting up to 20% of the total carbon of ethylene, fed to premixed flames with different equivalence ratios, with the four butanol isomers. Soot and condensed-phase nanostructures were tracked by means of particle size distribution (PSD) measurements and laser induced emission spectroscopy, namely fluorescence and incandescence. Butanol isomers, especially t-butanol, significantly reduced the total amount and the size of the soot particles, whereas a negligible effect was detected on condensed-phase nanostructures. PSDs were measured along with the aromaticity and functionalities of the carbon particulate matter thermophoretically sampled in the highest equivalence ratio condition. No significant differences were found among the different butanol isomers neither in the soot aggregate size, as measured by size exclusion chromatography, nor in the aromaticity, as evaluated by Raman and UV–vis spectroscopy, of the particulate matter. Conversely, FTIR analysis showed that carbon particulate matter produced from 1-butanol and t-butanol-doped flames contained larger amounts of oxygen in form of C = O, C–O–C and OH functionalities. However, most of the differences in the oxygen functionalities disappeared after dichloromethane (DCM) treatment, suggesting that these oxygenated moieties belong to the condensed-phase nanostructures, soluble in DCM, rather than to soot particles

Numerical Investigation on the Effect of the Oxymethylene Ether-3 (OME3) Blending Ratio in Premixed Sooting Ethylene Flames

Synthetic fuels, especially oxygenated fuels, which can be used as blending components, make it possible to modify the emission properties of conventional fossil fuels. Among oxygenated fuels, one promising candidate is oxymethylene ether-3 (OME3). In this work, the sooting propensity of ethylene (C2H4) blended with OME3 is numerically investigated on a series of laminar burner-stabilized premixed flames with increasing amounts of OME3, from pure ethylene to pure OME3. The numerical analysis is performed using the Conditional Quadrature Method of Moments combined with a detailed physico-chemical soot model. Two different equivalence ratios corresponding to a lightly and a highly sooting flame condition have been investigated. The study examines how different blending ratios of the two fuels affect soot particle formation and a correlation between OME3 blending ratio and corresponding soot reduction is established. The soot precursor species in the gas-phase are analyzed along with the soot volume fraction of small nanoparticles and large aggregates. Furthermore, the influence of the OME3 blending on the particle size distribution is studied applying the entropy maximization concept. The effect of increasing amounts of OME3 is found to be different for soot nanoparticles and larger aggregates. While OME3 blending significantly reduces the amount of larger aggregates, only large amounts of OME3, close to pure OME3, lead to a considerable suppression of nanoparticles formed throughout the flame. A linear correlation is identified between the OME3 content in the fuel and the reduction in the soot volume fraction of larger aggregates, while smaller blending ratios may lead to an increased number of nanoparticles for some positions in the flame for the richer flame condition

Effect of counterion on the catalytic activity of NHC-gold(I) in A3 coupling reactions

Synthetic A3-coupling represents an efficient and environmentally convenient procedure for the production of propargylamines, relevant intermediates for the preparation of pharmacologically active substances. Gold(I) complexes of general formula NHC-Au-X have been synthesized, characterized, and tested in the A3-coupling reaction of benzaldehyde, piperidine and phenylacetylene on varying the anionic fragment X as halogenide (Cl, Br, I), acetate (OAc), hexafluorophosphate (PF6) or phenylacetylide (-C≡CPh), with 5-dichloro[N-methyl, N’(2-hydroxy-2-phenyl)ethyl imidazole-2-ylidene as NHC ligand. The kinetic profiles were interpreted with DFT (Density Functional Theory) studies on bond dissociation energies (BDE) of the counterion as well as on the relative stability of the neutral NHC-Au-X complexes with respect to their ionic forms [Au(NHC)2]+[AuX2]-

A Comparative Analysis of Deterministic Detection and Estimation Techniques for MIMO SFCW Radars

In this paper, the problem of the joint estimation of the range and azimuth of multiple targets in a multiple-input multiple-output stepped-frequency continuous wave radar system is investigated. Three deterministic algorithms solving it through an iterative beam cancellation procedure are described; moreover, an iterative technique, based on the expectation-maximization algorithm, is developed with the aim of refining their estimates. The accuracy achieved by all the considered algorithms is assessed on the basis of the raw data acquired from a low power wideband radar device. Our results evidence that these algorithms achieve similar accuracies, but at the price of different computational efforts