Numerical simulation of thin-film MHD flow for nonuniform conductivity walls

Liquid metals offer unique properties and their use in a nuclear fusion reactor, both as confined flows and free surface flow, is widely studied in the fusion community. The interaction between this conductive fluid and the tokamak magnetic fields leads to Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) phenomena that influence the flow features. To properly design components that employ liquid metals, it is necessary to accurately predict these features and, although the efforts made in development, a mature code specifically customized to simulate MHD flows is still unavailable. In this work, the general purpose computational fluid dynamics code ANSYS CFX 18.2 is validated for MHD free surface thin film flow with insulated walls, up to Ha=1000 and for several values of the characteristic width/thickness ratio, comparing the results with the theoretical relation available in the literature. For all the cases considered, the maximum integral error is found below 10 %. Successively, the validated code is used to investigate the MHD flow in a chute with a characteristic film ratio equal to 0.1 and for Ha=300. Uniform and non-uniform wall electrical conductivity cases are considered with the latter modeled by placing on the side walls and on the back wall localized regions with different conductivity. The electrical conductivity of the back wall is found to have a negligible effect on the global flow when the lateral wall in insulated, similarly to what is observed for the analogous bounded flow. Contrariwise, an electrically conductive lateral wall is found to enhance the free surface jet and to modify the Hartmann layer structure

3D MHD analysis of prototypical manifold for liquid metal blankets

The water-cooled lead lithium (WCLL) and the dual-cooled lead lithium (DCLL) are two of the breeding blanket (BB) concepts that the EUROfusion consortium is pursuing in the framework of the development of the fusion reactor industrial demonstrator DEMO. Both involve the use of a liquid metal (LM) as working fluid, the lead-lithium eutectic alloy (PbLi), due to its excellent thermal properties and the possibility to serve as both the blanket coolant and tritium breeder and carrier. Unfortunately, due to the high electrical conductivity of LMs, their motion is influenced by the magnetic field used in the reactor to confine the plasma, generating a complex phenomenology which is studied by magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). In this work, a representative prototypical manifold of a BB bottom feeder is investigated for different configurations with the custom phiFoam solver, capable of simulating unsteady, incompressible and isothermal MHD flow. The aim of this study is to investigate which configuration minimizes the flow imbalance in the manifold for the WCLL or in the poloidal breeding zone channels for the DCLL. The distribution of the flow rate among the channels is strongly influenced by the position of the feeding pipe (FP) and by the development of the MHD internal layer near the expansion, which generates important jets close to the lower plate and the upper one, where the channels are attached. The channel aligned with the FP is the one carrying most of the flow, from 55% to 82%, while in the more distant one the flow is almost stagnant, carrying from 17% to 6% of the total flow rate. The total pressure loss is also estimated and its functional dependence on the manifold configuration is discussed

CFD Analysis and optimization of the DEMO WCLL central outboard segment bottom-Cap elementary cell

In the design of magnetic confinement nuclear fusion power plants, the Breeding Blanket (BB) plays a crucial role, since it must fulfil key functions such as tritium breeding, radiation-shielding and removing of the heat power generated by the plasma. The latter task is achieved by the First Wall (FW) and Breeding Zone (BZ) cooling systems, that in the Water-Cooled Lithium-Lead (WCLL) BB employs pressurized water. Different arrangements of BZ coolant conduits have been investigated in the recent past to identify an efficient layout, which could meet the structural materials operational temperature constraint and that could provide the optimal coolant outlet temperature. However, most of the Computational Fluid-Dynamic (CFD) analysis carried out until now have been focused on the equatorial WCLL elementary cell of the Central Outboard Segment (COB). The aim of this work is to broaden the analysis to other relevant locations in the blanket. An assessment of the design of the cooling system of the COB bottom-cap elementary BZ cell has been identified as the top design priority due to its different geometry and thermal loads. The cooling efficiency of the BZ and FW systems is investigated to assess if the coolant appropriate design conditions are matched and the temperature distribution in the cell is analyzed to identify the onset of hot spots. Different layouts of the FW systems are proposed and compared in terms of thermal-hydraulics reliability

Numerical Simulation of High-Density Ratio Bubble Motion with interIsoFoam

The breeding blanket is one of the fundamental components of a nuclear fusion reactor and is responsible for the fuel production, generating tritium through neutronic capture reaction between lithium and neutrons. Lithium is a liquid PbLi alloy and the helium formed as reaction by-product can coalesce into bubbles, generating a two-phase mixture with a high-density ratio (¿¿ ~ O5 ). These bubbles can accumulate and stagnate within the blanket channels with potentially harmful consequences. In this work, the interIsoFoam solver of OpenFOAM v2012 is used to simulate bubble motion for a two-phase mixture representative of the He-PbLi system to test its potential for future developments in the field of fusion. In a first phase, several traditional benchmarks were carried out, both 2D and 3D, and considering the two variants of the VOF method implemented in the solver, isoAdvector and plicRDF. Subsequently, He bubbles of different diameters rising in liquid PbLi (¿¿ = 1.2 × 105 ) were analysed to investigate different regimes. For a Eötvös number (Eo) greater than 10, it was possible to recreate the axisymmetric, skirted, oscillatory regimes and the peripheral and central breakup regimes. For Eo < 10, non-physical deformations of the interface are observed, probably generated by spurious velocities that have a greater impact on the solution for very small bubbles and rising velocities.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

A ozonioterapia como tratamento complementar do pé diabético

The aim of this paper was to present the use of ozone therapy as an adjuvant treatment in cases of diabetic foot ulcers and to compare traditional treatment and traditional treatment associated with ozone therapy. This is an integrative review in which searches were carried out in the PubMed, VHL, ScienceDirect and SciELO databases, without date or language restrictions. The results demonstrate that ozone, as a complementary measure to conventional treatment, has shown promise in the treatment of diabetic foot and ulcers, as it helps with healing, circulation, the immune system and has no adverse effects. Diabetes Mellitus, if left untreated, can lead to complications, such as diabetic foot - a syndrome that causes neuropathy, ischemia and infections that lead to the development of diabetic foot ulcers. Conventional treatment for diabetic foot ulcers consists of the use of antibiotics, debridement of the lesions and, in some cases, amputation of the limbs; therefore, ozone therapy has been used to complement the treatment. The results obtained showed that the use of ozone is promising in patients with diabetic foot ulcers.O objetivo deste trabalho foi apresentar o uso da ozonioterapia como tratamento coadjuvante em casos de úlcera de pé diabético e comparar o tratamento tradicional e o tratamento tradicional associado à ozonioterapia. Trata-se de uma revisão integrativa em que foram realizadas pesquisas nas bases de dados PubMed, BVS, ScienceDirect e SciELO, sem restrições de datas ou idiomas. Os resultados demonstram que o ozônio, como medida complementar ao tratamento convencional, se mostrou promissor no tratamento do pé diabético e das úlceras, por auxiliar na cicatrização, circulação, no sistema imunológico e não apresenta efeitos adversos. A Diabetes Mellitus, se não tratada, pode acarretar complicações, como o pé diabético - uma síndrome que ocasiona neuropatia, isquemia e infecções que cursam com o desenvolvimento das úlceras do pé diabético. O tratamento convencional para as úlceras do pé diabético consiste na utilização de antibióticos, desbridamento das lesões e, em alguns casos, a amputação dos membros, assim, a ozonioterapia vem sendo utilizada para complementar o tratamento. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o uso do ozônio é promissor nos pacientes portadores de úlcera do pé diabético

Síndrome do pânico na área da psicologia: uma revisão

The aim was to carry out research regarding panic disorder (PD) and its association with anxiety attacks and other factors, related to the increased occurrence of disorders that are associated with stress today. Integrative bibliographic review, in which the selection was made in an integrative and systematic way, for analysis and writing. The diagnosis of PD is essentially clinical and, advantageously, it is made early so that treatment can be started as soon as possible. Through bibliographic research, three types of treatment for PD were identified: psychopharmacological, psychotherapeutic, and combined, which combines the two isolated types. Therefore, when comparing the isolated treatments with the associated treatment between them, it was observed that the combined treatment demonstrated greater effectiveness. This literary review sought to characterize panic disorder and its attacks, in addition to demonstrating the effectiveness of treatment for a better patient prognosis. In this sense, non-pharmacological treatment associated with pharmacological treatment demonstrated greater benefits when compared to its isolated types of clinical management.Objetivou-se realizar uma pesquisa a respeito do Transtorno do Pânico (TP) e sua associação com crises de ansiedade e outros fatores, relacionados ao aumento da ocorrência de transtornos que possuem associação com o estresse na sociedade atual. Revisão bibliográfica integrativa, na qual a seleção foi feita de maneira integrativa e sistemática, para análise e escrita. O diagnóstico do TP é essencialmente clínico e é vantajoso que ele seja feito de forma precoce, para que o tratamento seja iniciado o mais brevemente possível. Através das pesquisas bibliográficas foram identificados três tipos de tratamento para o TP: o psicofarmacológico, o psicoterapêutico e o combinado, que associa os dois tipos isolados. Dessa forma, ao se comparar os tratamentos isolados com o tratamento associado entre eles, foi observado que o tratamento combinado demonstrou uma maior eficácia. Essa revisão literária buscou caracterizar o transtorno do pânico e seus ataques, além de demonstrar a eficácia do tratamento para o melhor prognóstico do paciente. Nesse sentido, o tratamento não farmacológico associado ao farmacológico demonstrou maiores benefícios, quando comparado a seus tipos isolados de manejo clínico

A ozonioterapia como tratamento complementar do pé diabético

The aim of this paper was to present the use of ozone therapy as an adjuvant treatment in cases of diabetic foot ulcers and to compare traditional treatment and traditional treatment associated with ozone therapy. This is an integrative review in which searches were carried out in the PubMed, VHL, ScienceDirect and SciELO databases, without date or language restrictions. The results demonstrate that ozone, as a complementary measure to conventional treatment, has shown promise in the treatment of diabetic foot and ulcers, as it helps with healing, circulation, the immune system and has no adverse effects. Diabetes Mellitus, if left untreated, can lead to complications, such as diabetic foot - a syndrome that causes neuropathy, ischemia and infections that lead to the development of diabetic foot ulcers. Conventional treatment for diabetic foot ulcers consists of the use of antibiotics, debridement of the lesions and, in some cases, amputation of the limbs; therefore, ozone therapy has been used to complement the treatment. The results obtained showed that the use of ozone is promising in patients with diabetic foot ulcers.O objetivo deste trabalho foi apresentar o uso da ozonioterapia como tratamento coadjuvante em casos de úlcera de pé diabético e comparar o tratamento tradicional e o tratamento tradicional associado à ozonioterapia. Trata-se de uma revisão integrativa em que foram realizadas pesquisas nas bases de dados PubMed, BVS, ScienceDirect e SciELO, sem restrições de datas ou idiomas. Os resultados demonstram que o ozônio, como medida complementar ao tratamento convencional, se mostrou promissor no tratamento do pé diabético e das úlceras, por auxiliar na cicatrização, circulação, no sistema imunológico e não apresenta efeitos adversos. A Diabetes Mellitus, se não tratada, pode acarretar complicações, como o pé diabético - uma síndrome que ocasiona neuropatia, isquemia e infecções que cursam com o desenvolvimento das úlceras do pé diabético. O tratamento convencional para as úlceras do pé diabético consiste na utilização de antibióticos, desbridamento das lesões e, em alguns casos, a amputação dos membros, assim, a ozonioterapia vem sendo utilizada para complementar o tratamento. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o uso do ozônio é promissor nos pacientes portadores de úlcera do pé diabético

Numerical simulation of MHD flows in breeding blanket and plasma-facing components

The construction of a nuclear fusion reactor is probably the most complex engineering challenge that humanity is trying to overcome as its design combines disparate, sometimes conflicting, requirements derived from different fields of technology: neutronics, thermomechanics and thermohydraulics, electromechanics and applied superconductivity, Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), radioprotection and safety. The enormous benefits in the use of nuclear fusion as an energy source have led to a constant international commitment to the construction of the first nuclear fusion reactor, sanctioned by the decision to build an international experimental reactor (ITER) in 2006. Since 2014, the European research and development activities in nuclear fusion have been coordinated by the EUROfusion consortium to achieve the breakthrough goal of building a demonstration fusion power plant (DEMO) after 2050. Among the huge amount of components essential to the reactor operation, two of the key ones are certainly the Breeding Blanket (BB) and the divertor, which completely surround the plasma. The first has the task of ensuring the fuel self- sufficiency of the reactor, the extraction of the power generated by the nuclear reactions and shielding the other components and personnel from radiation. The second has the task of managing and extracting the power and particle exhaust. One of the most promising blanket concepts is the Water-Cooled Lead Lithium (WCLL), whose research activities are coordinate by the Brasimone research centre of the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA). The most promising concept of divertor is the full-tungsten one that will be tested in ITER, but several advanced solutions are being studied that aim to bridge the gap in the requirements for power handling and component availability between ITER and DEMO. Liquid Metals (LM) are considered attractive solution both as working fluids in blankets and as “self-healing protection” in advanced divertor and Plasma Facing Components (PFCs) concepts, where the most promising candidates are the lead- lithium eutectic alloy (PbLi) for the blanket and lithium or tin for the PFCs. Unfortunately, due to the electrical conductivity of metals, their motion is influenced by the magnetic field used in the reactor to confine the plasma, generating a complex phenomenology which is studied by the Liquid Metal Magnetohydrodynamics (LM-MHD) and which must be considered in phase design. These phenomena include the electromagnetic drag, turbulence suppression, modified heat and mass transport and electromagnetic coupling phenomena. In this framework, intense studies and research activities are essential to provide high-quality experimental and numerical data and to develop accurate predictive numerical tools. The research activity presented in this PhD dissertation aims to contribute to the numerical modelling of MHD phenomena relevant for the BB and for advanced PFCs thought Computational Magnetohydrodynamics (CMHD) codes. In Part II, the state of the art of CMHD codes is briefly presented, with a particular focus on the codes used in this research: ANSYS CFX and OpenFOAM. Of the latter, the icoFoam solver is presented in detail, used as a basis for the implementation of the MHD model presented in Chapter 5. The solver, called phiFoam, is capable of simulating a low magnetic Reynolds number, laminar, incompressible and isothermal MHD flow for ducts with perfectly electrical insulated or perfectly conductive walls. The solver was built by implementing the MHD equations in the formulation of the electric potential and adopting the numerical scheme proposed by Ni et al. [1] for the calculation of the current density in the cell centre in a conservative way. The phiFoam solver was validated through a two-dimensional and a three- dimensional benchmark. The 2D benchmark is based on the comparison of the dimensionless flow rate for a square duct with perfectly insulated walls to the Shercliff analytical solution [2, 3]. For Ha = 500, where Ha is the Hartmann number and represents the intensity of the magnetic field, an error of ≃ 0.7 % was obtained, while for the case Ha = 5000 an error of ≃ 3 %. The 3D benchmark considers a manifold consisting of an inlet channel, an abrupt expansion and three distribution channels. The control parameters are the flow rate repartition between the channels and the three-dimensional pressure drop due to the axial electric currents that develop mainly due to expansion, that are predicted, respectively, with an error of ≃ 5 % and ≃ 9 %. Overall, phiFoam has been shown to be able to accurately predict the basic MHD phenomena for a laminar flow up to Ha = 5000. In Chapter 6, the geometry and functioning of the PbLi co-axial manifold of WCLL2018 is showed in detail and a prototypical co-axial, or annular, channel model is presented. In Chapter 7, the annular channel is characterized through numerical calculation by ANSYS CFX code by varying the intensity of the magnetic field, the geometric parameters and the conductivity of the wall, represented by the conductance ratio cw. In Chapter 8, the electromagnetic coupling between the external and internal channel of the co axial geometry is studied as the intensity of the magnetic field and the distribution of the flow rate between the external and internal channels vary. For the uncoupled case, if the walls are perfectly insulated, two outflow areas are formed in which the velocity is practically uniform, separated by an internal layer: a fast core located in the portion of the channel parallel to the magnetic field and a slow core situation in the normal portion. With electro- conductive walls (cw = 0.1), the fast core is substituted by two intensive jets close side walls. By increasing the wall conductivity, the flow features remain those described for the case cw = 0.1 up to cw = 1, after which the velocity tends to become uniform throughout the channel. As the geometry of the annular channel varies, with fixed Ha and cw, the fundamental characteristics of the flow practically unchanged until the gap between the external and internal channels becomes very small and the jets do not have the necessary space to develop completely. The electromagnetic coupling phenomena change considerably the flow features. Different flow repartition scenarios between the external and internal channel are investigated at Ha = 2000. The external channel is greatly affected by the electro- magnetic coupling phenomenon, which drastically changes the velocity distribution compared to the uncoupled case, already for small values of the internal flow rate. In particular, is observed the formation of an intense jet contrary to the main flow direction in correspondence with the side wall shared with the internal channel, and a progressive flattening of the velocity profile in the other areas. The internal channel, on the other hand, is much less interested by the coupling, having characteristics close to a uncoupled case even at a very reduced flow rate. As the Hartmann number increases, with a fixed flow rate repartition, all the typical characteristics of the particular scenario are maintained and all the effects are progressively intensified. It is important to note that the counter flow rate under WCLL operating conditions is estimated to be around 28 % and must be considered in studies related to the management of the tritium inventory, since fluid recirculation will inevitably lead to tritium accumulation, especially in the outflow manifold. The co-axial pressure gradient has been correlated with the pressure gradient of an equivalent channel for which exist an analytical solution, developing a correction factor between the configurations. This factor shows an asymptotic behaviour for Ha &gt; 1000 and allows to estimate the pressure drop for a similar configuration at higher Hartmann numbers without performing a numerical simulation. These correction factors were used to estimate the pressure drop of the WCLL outboard PbLi spinal manifold that contribute for the 18.5 % of the total in-magnet PbLi loop pressure drop. In Chapter 9, the WCLL2018 bottom collector is discussed in detail and a prototypical collector model with three different feeding pipe configurations, similar to ones envisaged in the last iteration of the WCLL and Dual-Coolant Lead Lithium (DCLL) breeding blanket, are analysed through phiFoam solver. The aim of the study is to investigate which configuration minimizes the flow imbalance in the manifold for the WCLL or in the poloidal breeding zone channels for the DCLL. The distribution of the flow rate between the channels is strongly influenced by the position of the feeding pipes and by the development of the internal layer near the expansion which generates important jets close to the back plate and the upper one where the channels are attached. The channel aligned with the feeding pipe is the one carrying most of the flow, from 55 % to 82 %, while in the more distant one the flow is almost stagnant, carrying from 17 % to 6 % of the total flow rate. The total pressure loss is also estimated and its functional dependence on the collector configuration is discussed. In Chapter 10, a thin-film single-phase MHD flow, representative of the armour in a film-type divertor or PFCs, has been investigated with the ANSYS CFX code. The numerical model is validated through the theoretical solution presented by Shishko et al. [4] up to Ha = 1000 for an insulated chute with an aspect ratio from 0.044 to 0.2. Consequently, the flow in a chute with insulating, conductive and partially conductive walls has been investigated to highlight the effect of discontinuous wall conductivity on the backing plate and lateral walls. A partially conductive backing plate has a negligible effect on the flow, if also the lateral wall is insulated, consistent to the analogous bounded case, whereas the transition from insulating to conductive Hartmann wall causes larger pressure losses, higher free surface velocity, counter flow onset and structural change in the Hartmann boundary layer. The location of the conductive sections on the Hartmann wall influences the flow features, resulting in higher free surface velocity and pressure drop when these are close to the backing plate and free surface. The chute with both perfectly conductive backing plate and lateral walls is the one that experiences the greatest pressure drop and free surface velocity. These phenomena could be interesting for the PFCs applications, where increasing the free surface velocity with a contained pressure drop could be an attractive solution. In this case, the best compromise is to have a partially conductive lateral wall with the conductive portion placed in the middle/bottom part on the wall, instead of a totally conductive wall. In Chapter 11, is considered the rising of a bubble in a liquid metal under the action of a magnetic field. The multi-phase interIsoFoam solver present in the OpenFOAM distribution is validated in hydrodynamic conditions for a 2D stationary drop, 2D rising bubble, 3D rising bubble and for the coalescence of two bubbles. Then, it was tested for a high density ratio mixture, simulating the rising of a helium bubble in the PbLi with different diameters, showing the ability to correctly model different flow regimes. Overall, interIsoFoam has proven to be able to correctly simulate the basic characteristics of a flow with a high density ratio and therefore it is an excellent candidate for the future implementation of the MHD equations, for the study of the migration of helium bubbles in the blanket but also in the framework of the advanced PFCs

Long term influence of human presence on spatial sexual segregation in fallow deer (<i>Dama dama</i>)

The present work investigates how a fallow deer (Dama dama) population in central Italy might have been affected from 1984 to 2003 by the increase of human access to the study site, where humans were the main deer predators. By using deer census data, possible correlations were analyzed between the increase in human presence and the response of each age and sex class. The numbers of different age and sex classes of deer recorded inside and outside the sector affected by human presence throughout the 20-year period of study were compared. A differential response was recorded among classes. Adult females and juveniles left this area (reducing their presence from 37% of all deer observed to 11% for adult females and from 19% to 3% for juveniles) when human pressure became higher, whereas the opposite result was true for males older than 24 months (adult males) that remained inside the disturbed sector (from 27% to 50% of deer observed). Intermediate values were recorded for yearling males, because they can be associated with both groups of females and groups of males. Results of this long-term study are best explained with the reproductive strategy hypothesis, because the increase of predation risk evoked a marked spatial sexual segregation in the fallow deer population. Females and juveniles used relatively predator-safe habitats, whereas males used habitats with higher predation risk but better food quality. Furthermore, as females increased their presence outside the disturbed sector, males gradually abandoned the undisturbed area, increased use of the disturbed sector, and maximized foraging opportunities by going to areas where indirect competition with females was probably reduced

Bubble motion in high-density ratio two-phase mixtures using InterIsoFoam

The breeding blanket in a nuclear fusion reactor generates tritium through capture reaction between lithium and neutrons. Lithium is in a liquid PbLi alloy and the helium formed as reaction by-product can coalesce into bubbles, generating a two-phase mixture with a high-density ratio (η_ρ~O(10^5)). These bubbles can accumulate and stagnate within the blanket channels with potentially harmful consequences [1]. In this paper, the interIsoFoam (iIF) solver of OpenFoam v2012 is used to simulate bubble motion for a two-phase mixture representative of the PbLi-He to test its potential for future developments in the field of fusion. The first part of the study analyses the performance of the code using several benchmarks: 2D [2] and 3D rising bubble [3], 2D stationary drop [4] and the coaxial coalescence of two bubbles [3]. For almost all the cases, the two variants of the VOF method implemented in iIF, isoAdvector and plicRDF [5], were tested. The code is found in excellent agreement (≤2.1%) with the reference data for minimum circularity/sphericity and maximum rise velocity at a given simulation time for the 2D and 3D rising bubbles. The pressure jump for the stationary drop is underestimated by about 10%, while the index that quantifies the spurious velocities is L_1 (v)~〖O(10〗^(-7)). Excellent agreement is found for the coalescence of two bubbles (Figure 1A). Subsequently, a parametric analysis for a 2D rising bubble is performed to investigate the performances of the code for a fusion relevant scenario, up to η_ρ≈5∙10^4, where we found a consistent dynamic with the expected regime. Afterwards, He bubbles of different diameters rising in liquid PbLi (η_ρ=〖1.2∙10〗^5) were analysed to investigate regimes for 8∙10^(-3)≤Eo≤2∙10^3 and 44≤Ga≤2∙〖5∙10〗^5, where Eo and Ga are the Eötvös and Galilei numbers. For Eo&gt;10, we were able to recreate the axisymmetric, skirted, oscillatory regimes and the peripheral and central breakup regimes (Figure 1B). For Eo&lt;10, non-physical deformations of the interface are observed, probably generated by spurious velocities that have a greater impact on the solution for very small bubbles and rising velocities. Overall, iIF is able to reliably simulate the bubble motion in a two-phase flow with η_p≤1.2∙10^5 and Eo&gt;10. The solver will be used as a foundation for developing a multi-phase magnetohydrodynamics model to investigate the bubble motion in a liquid metal subjected to the magnetic field present in a fusion reactor. [1] M. Kordač and L. Košek, “Helium bubble formation in Pb-16Li within the breeding blanket,” Fusion Eng. Des., vol. 124, pp. 700–704, Nov. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.fusengdes.2017.05.100. [2] S. Hysing et al., “Quantitative benchmark computations of two-dimensional bubble dynamics,” Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids, vol. 60, no. 11, pp. 1259–1288, Aug. 2009, doi: 10.1002/fld.1934. [3] N. Balcázar, O. Lehmkuhl, L. Jofre, J. Rigola, and A. Oliva, “A coupled volume-of-fluid/level-set method for simulation of two-phase flows on unstructured meshes,” Comput. Fluids, vol. 124, pp. 12–29, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.compfluid.2015.10.005. [4] S. Hysing, “Mixed element FEM level set method for numerical simulation of immiscible fluids,” J. Comput. Phys., vol. 231, no. 6, pp. 2449–2465, 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.jcp.2011.11.035. [5] L. Gamet, M. Scala, J. Roenby, H. Scheufler, and J. Lou Pierson, “Validation of volume-of-fluid OpenFOAM® isoAdvector solvers using single bubble benchmarks,” Comput. Fluids, vol. 213, p. 104722, Dec. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.compfluid.2020.104722