Hypoglycemia-Sensing Neurons of the Ventromedial Hypothalamus Require AMPK-Induced Txn2 Expression but Are Dispensable for Physiological Counterregulation.

The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMN) is involved in the counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia. VMN neurons activated by hypoglycemia (glucose-inhibited [GI] neurons) have been assumed to play a critical although untested role in this response. Here, we show that expression of a dominant negative form of AMPK or inactivation of AMPK α1 and α2 subunit genes in Sf1 neurons of the VMN selectively suppressed GI neuron activity. We found that Txn2, encoding a mitochondrial redox enzyme, was strongly downregulated in the absence of AMPK activity and that reexpression of Txn2 in Sf1 neurons restored GI neuron activity. In cell lines, Txn2 was required to limit glucopenia-induced reactive oxygen species production. In physiological studies, absence of GI neuron activity after AMPK suppression in the VMN had no impact on the counterregulatory hormone response to hypoglycemia or on feeding. Thus, AMPK is required for GI neuron activity by controlling the expression of the antioxidant enzyme Txn2. However, the glucose-sensing capacity of VMN GI neurons is not required for the normal counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia. Instead, it may represent a fail-safe system in case of impaired hypoglycemia sensing by peripherally located glucose detection systems that are connected to the VMN

Frequent high-level expression of the immunotherapeutic target Ep-CAM in colon, stomach, prostate and lung cancers

Epithelial cell adhesion molecule (Ep-CAM; CD326) is used as a target by many immunotherapeutic approaches, but little data are available about Ep-CAM expression in major human malignancies with respect to level, frequency, tumour stage, grade, histologic tumour type and impact on survival. We analysed by immunohistochemical staining tissue microarrays with 4046 primary human carcinoma samples from colon, stomach, prostate and lung cancers for both frequency and intensity of Ep-CAM expression under highly standardised conditions. A total of 3360 samples were analysable. High-level Ep-CAM expression was observed in 97.7% (n=1186) of colon, 90.7% of gastric (n=473), and 87.2% of prostate cancers (n=414), and in 63.9% of lung cancers (n=1287). No detectable Ep-CAM staining was found with only 0.4% of colon, 2.5% of gastric, 1.9% of prostate cancers, and 13.5% of lung cancers. The only significant correlation of Ep-CAM expression with tumour grading was observed in colon cancer where high-level Ep-CAM expression on grade 3 tumours was down to 92.1% (P<0.0001). Adenosquamous and squamous carcinomas of the lung had a lower percentage of high-level Ep-CAM expression compared to adenocarcinomas with 35.4 and 53.6%, respectively, and with 45.5 and 17.3% of tumours being Ep-CAM negative. With the exception of moderately differentiated colon carcinoma, where patients not expressing Ep-CAM on their tumours showed an inferior survival (P=0.0014), correlation of Ep-CAM expression with survival did not reach statistical significance for any of the other cancer indications and subgroups. In conclusion, the data strongly support the notion that Ep-CAM is a prime target for immunotherapies in major human malignancies. This is because the most common human cancers show (i) a low frequency of Ep-CAM-negative tumours, (ii) a high frequency of Ep-CAM expression on cells of a given tumour, and (iii) for most cancers, an insignificant influence of tumour staging, grading and histology on Ep-CAM expression

Vers une thérapie génique ex vivo de la dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne : approches lentivirale et intégrase PhiC31

La dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne est une maladie génétique liée au chromosome X qui atteint un garçon sur 3 500. Cette maladie est caractérisée par l'absence de dystrophine à la surface des fibres musculaires. Sans cette protéine, les fibres se brisent plus fréquemment et une faiblesse musculaire progressive apparait. Les patients décèdent généralement au début de la vingtaine. Il n'y a présentement aucun traitement pour cette pathologie. La greffe de cellules myogéniques est une thérapie possible, mais se heurte à un rejet par le système immunitaire du patient. Pour contourner ce problème, il est possible de développer une thérapie génique ex vivo, basée sur la greffe de cellules autologues modifiées génétiquement. Malheureusement, aucune technique efficace de modification génétique des cellules n'était disponible il y a quatre ans. Nous avons testé deux nouvelles techniques de modification génétique. Une première est non virale et la seconde utilise les lentivirus. La première consiste à transfecter un plasmide d'expression de la dystrophine par Nucléofection. Pour intégrer les séquences, un second plasmide, codant pour l'intégrase PhiC31, est aussi introduit dans les cellules. Cette technique nous a permis de stabiliser des plasmides allant de 7 kb à 21 kb, ce qui en fait les plus grosses séquences jamais stabilisées dans des cellules de culture primaire humaine. Cette expression a pu être détectée dans les fibres musculaires après une greffe. Nous avons aussi utilisé des lentivirus pour effectuer une modification génétique des cellules. Ce vecteur viral est très efficace pour introduire des cassettes d'expression pour des versions tronquées de la dystrophine. L'expression de cette dystrophine est détectable in vitro, mais aussi in vivo après la transplantation. De plus, une cassette servant à faire le saut d'exon thérapeutique a aussi été introduite dans des cellules myogéniques et a permis de faire exprimer une dystrophine presque complète par des cellules issues de patients DMD. Cette expression a aussi été détectée dans des modèles murins. Ces travaux constituent une preuve de principe de la faisabilité d'une thérapie génique ex vivo pour la DMD. Plusieurs améliorations restent à apporter, mais il semble que ces travaux laissent croire qu'un essai clinique sera réalisable.Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe X-linked muscle genetic illness that afflicts one boy per 3 500. Cell therapy is a possible cure for this illness that usually kills patients around age 25. Transplantation of the heterologus myogenic cells is, however, restricted by the immune rejection by the patient. Ex vivo gene therapy offers an evasion to this problem. Introduction of the therapeutic gene into the patient’s own myogenic precursor cells, followed by transplantation is the base of this therapeutic. Four years ago, no efficient procedure to stably modify myogenic cells was available. New gene introduction techniques were thus tested in the present thesis. The first one is a non-viral method. We used a new transfection technology (Nucleofection) to introduce plasmid DNA coding for dystrophin with success. To stabilize the expression, human myogenic cells were co-nucleofected with a PhiC31 expressing plasmid. This integrase was capable of stabilising expression plasmids ranging from 7 kb to 21 kb. This very large sequence was the largest plasmid ever stabilised into human primary cultured cells. The presence of full-length dystrophin protein was detected in vitro and confirmed in vivo, after the transplantation of the myogenic precursor. Another technique was used: the lentiviral vectors. These viral vectors were designed to deliver an expression cassette for a truncated version of the dystrophin gene. The viral vector was efficient at modifying the cells. The expression was shown in vitro and in vivo after the transplantation of the modified cells. The lentiviral vectors were also essayed to deliver a U7 exon skipping cassette into DMD cells. It was then possible to demonstrate that this introduction led to the expression of a quasi normal dystrophin protein in vitro. The expression was also shown in vivo after the transplantation into SCID mice model. A non-viral approach combining nucleofection and the PhiC31 integrase may eventually permit safe auto-transplantation of genetically modified cells. The utilisation of lentiviral vectors also provided evidences that an ex vivo gene therapy is possible for DMD. We believe these results are paving the way to an eventual clinical trial for ex vivo gene therapy

The KRAB-ZFP/KAP1 System Contributes to the Early Embryonic Establishment of Site-Specific DNA Methylation Patterns Maintained during Development

De novo DNA methylation is an essential aspect of the epigenetic reprogramming that takes place during early development, yet factors responsible for its instatement at particular genomic loci are poorly defined. Here, we demonstrate that the KRAB-ZFP-mediated recruitment of KAP1 to DNA in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) induces cytosine methylation. This process is preceded by H3K9 trimethylation, and genome-wide analyses reveal that it spreads over short distances from KAP1-binding sites so as to involve nearby CpG islands. In sharp contrast, in differentiated cells, KRAB/KAP1-induced heterochromatin formation does not lead to DNA methylation. Correspondingly, the methylation status of CpG islands in the adult mouse liver correlates with their proximity to KAP1-binding sites in ESCs, not in hepatocytes. Therefore, KRAB-ZFPs and their cofactor KAP1 are in part responsible for the establishment during early embryogenesis of site-specific DNA methylation patterns that are maintained through development

Interplay of TRIM28 and DNA methylation in controlling human endogenous retroelements

Reverse transcription-derived sequences account for at least half of the human genome. Although these retroelements are formidable motors of evolution, they can occasionally cause disease, and accordingly are inactivated during early embryogenesis through epigenetic mechanisms. In the mouse, at least for endogenous retroviruses, important mediators of this process are the tetrapod-specific KRAB-containing zinc finger proteins (KRAB-ZFPs) and their cofactor TRIM28. The present study demonstrates that KRAB/TRIM28-mediated regulation is responsible for controlling a very broad range of human-specific endogenous retroelements (EREs) in human embryonic stem (ES) cells and that it exerts, as a consequence, a marked effect on the transcriptional dynamics of these cells. It further reveals reciprocal dependence between TRIM28 recruitment at specific families of EREs and DNA methylation. It finally points to the importance of persistent TRIM28-mediated control of ERE transcriptional impact beyond their presumed inactivation by DNA methylation

In Embryonic Stem Cells, ZFP57/KAP1 Recognize a Methylated Hexanucleotide to Affect Chromatin and DNA Methylation of Imprinting Control Regions

The maintenance of H3K9 and DNA methylation at imprinting control regions (ICRs) during early embryogenesis is key to the regulation of imprinted genes. Here, we reveal that ZFP57, its cofactor KAP1, and associated effectors bind selectively to the H3K9me3-bearing, DNA-methylated allele of ICRs in ES cells. KAP1 deletion induces a loss of heterochromatin marks at ICRs, whereas deleting ZFP57 or DNMTs leads to ICR DNA demethylation. Accordingly, we find that ZFP57 and KAP1 associated with DNMTs and hemimethylated DNA-binding NP95. Finally, we identify the methylated TGCCGC hexanucleotide as the motif that is recognized by ZFP57 in all ICRs and in several tens of additional loci, several of which are at least ZFP57-dependently methylated in ES cells. These results significantly advance our understanding of imprinting and suggest a general mechanism for the protection of specific loci against the wave of DNA demethylation that affects the mammalian genome during early embryogenesis

Expression of Dog Microdystrophin in Mouse and Dog Muscles by Gene Therapy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is characterized by the absence of dystrophin. Several previous studies demonstrated the feasibility of delivering microdystrophin complementary DNA (cDNA) into mouse and normal nonhuman primate muscles by ex vivo gene therapy. However, these animal models do not reproduce completely the human DMD phenotype, while the dystrophic dog model does. To progress toward the use of the best animal model of DMD, a dog microdystrophin was transduced into human and dystrophic dog muscle precursor cells (MPCs) with a lentivirus before their transplantation into mouse muscles. One month following MPC transplantation, myofibers expressing the dog microdystrophin were observed. We also used another approach to introduce this transgene into myofibers, i.e., the electrotransfer of a plasmid coding for the dog microdystrophin. The plasmid was injected into mouse and dog muscles, and brief electric pulses were applied in the region of injection. Two weeks later, the transgene was detected in both animals. Therefore, ex vivo gene therapy and electrotransfer are two possible methods to introduce a truncated version of dystrophin into myofibers of animal models and eventually into myofibers of DMD patients

Liver-specific ablation of Krüppel-associated box-associated protein 1 in mice leads to male-predominant hepatosteatosis and development of liver adenoma

The liver is characterized by sexually dimorphic gene expression translating into sex-specific differences in lipid, drug, steroid hormone and xenobiotic metabolism, with distinct responses of males and females to environmental challenges. Here, we investigated the role of the KRAB-associated protein 1 (KAP1) epigenetic regulator in this process. Liver-specific KAP1 knockout led to strikingly sexually dimorphic phenotypic disturbances, including male-predominant steatosis and hepatic tumors with upregulation of AKT and ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. This correlated with sex-specific transcriptional dysregulation of a wide range of metabolic genes, notably those involved in retinol and sex hormone processing as well as in detoxification. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing indicated that a number of dysregulated genes are direct targets of the KRAB/KAP1 repression system. Those genes include sexually dimorphic Cyp2d9, Gst\u3d5, Slp Cyp2a, Cyp2b and Cyp3a gene clusters. Additionally, we identified a male-restricted KAP1 binding site in the fsp27 (fat specific protein 27) gene, correlating with its male-predominant upregulation upon Kap1 deletion, suggesting that the latter might be an important trigger in the development of male-specific hepatosteatosis and secondary tumorigenesis. Conclusion: This work reveals KRAB/KAP1-mediated transcriptional regulation as a central event in the metabolic control hormones, drugs and xenobiotics in the liver, and further links disturbances in these processes with hepatic carcinogenesis