In vivo sexual discrimination in Salamandrina perspicillata: a cros-check analysis of annual changes in external cloacal morphology and spermic urine release

In Salamandrina, the lack of visible external sexual dimorphism makes the sexing of individuals difficult without sacrifice. The cloaca of Salamandrina in both males and females appears externally as a slit on an unswollen surface, a trait which is consistent throughout the year. Nonetheless, a slight divarication of its borders allows the recognition of three morphs (A, B and C), respectively characterizing male cloaca (all phases), female cloaca without protruding oviductal papillae (courtship phase) and female cloaca with prolapsed oviductal papillae (oviposition phase). Figures and schematic diagrams are provided to illustrate the differences in detail, which are all recognizable to the naked eye or by means of a hand magnifier. In addition to morphology, another reliable method of sexing salamanders is urine examination, albeit only during the courtship and post-courtship phases. Applying these methods for sex determination, we found a malebiased operational sex ratio in two populations, ranging from 6.6:1 (autumn–winter) to 14:1 (May). Males were confined to terrestrial environments, whereas females were also found in water during oviposition. Salamandrina perspicillata was active throughout the year, except during the hottest months (July–August)

Element content of propolis from different regions of Turkey

Levels of Na, K, Ca, Mg, N, Cu and Zn of propolis samples originating from different geographic locations of Turkey were investigated. Sodium was the most abundant element in the samples. The calcium content was found between 0.118-0.0793 mg g-1. The highest magnesium content was found in samples from Yozgat region, whereas the lowest was in those of Adana region. Potassium content changed between 0.121-0.364 mg g-1. There were no statistical differences in nitrogen levels. Interestingly, no sulphur (S) was detected in propolis samples. The copper and zinc content changed between 0.045-0.096 mg g-1, 0.176-0.676 mg g-1, respectively. Finally, mineral content of Turkish propolis was about the same as the commercial propolises from other countries. The content of Cu in propolises was generally within safe limits, and compared well with levels in foods from Turkish Food Codex, though Zn contents were high