Translation initiation by cap‐dependent ribosome recruitment: Recent insights and open questions

Gene expression universally relies on protein synthesis, where ribosomes recognize and decode the messenger RNA template by cycling through translation initiation, elongation, and termination phases. All aspects of translation have been studied for decades using the tools of biochemistry and molecular biology available at the time. Here, we focus on the mechanism of translation initiation in eukaryotes, which is remarkably more complex than prokaryotic initiation and is the target of multiple types of regulatory intervention. The “consensus” model, featuring cap‐dependent ribosome entry and scanning of mRNA leader sequences, represents the predominantly utilized initiation pathway across eukaryotes, although several variations of the model and alternative initiation mechanisms are also known. Recent advances in structural biology techniques have enabled remarkable molecular‐level insights into the functional states of eukaryotic ribosomes, including a range of ribosomal complexes with different combinations of translation initiation factors that are thought to represent bona fide intermediates of the initiation process. Similarly, high‐throughput sequencing‐based ribosome profiling or “footprinting” approaches have allowed much progress in understanding the elongation phase of translation, and variants of them are beginning to reveal the remaining mysteries of initiation, as well as aspects of translation termination and ribosomal recycling. A current view on the eukaryotic initiation mechanism is presented here with an emphasis on how recent structural and footprinting results underpin axioms of the consensus model. Along the way, we further outline some contested mechanistic issues and major open questions still to be addressed.The work was supported by Australian Research Council grant DP130101928 and Cancer Council ACT grant GNT1120469 awarded to Thomas Preiss

Selective and flexible depletion of problematic sequences from RNA-seq libraries at the cDNA stage

BACKGROUND A major hurdle to transcriptome profiling by deep-sequencing technologies is that abundant transcripts, such as rRNAs, can overwhelm the libraries, severely reducing transcriptome-wide coverage. Methods for depletion of such unwanted sequences typically require treatment of RNA samples prior to library preparation, are costly and not suited to unusual species and applications. Here we describe Probe-Directed Degradation (PDD), an approach that employs hybridisation to DNA oligonucleotides at the single-stranded cDNA library stage and digestion with Duplex-Specific Nuclease (DSN). RESULTS Targeting Saccharomyces cerevisiae rRNA sequences in Illumina HiSeq libraries generated by the split adapter method we show that PDD results in efficient removal of rRNA. The probes generate extended zones of depletion as a function of library insert size and the requirements for DSN cleavage. Using intact total RNA as starting material, probes can be spaced at the minimum anticipated library size minus 20 nucleotides to achieve continuous depletion. No off-target bias is detectable when comparing PDD-treated with untreated libraries. We further provide a bioinformatics tool to design suitable PDD probe sets. CONCLUSION We find that PDD is a rapid procedure that results in effective and specific depletion of unwanted sequences from deep-sequencing libraries. Because PDD acts at the cDNA stage, handling of fragile RNA samples can be minimised and it should further be feasible to remediate existing libraries. Importantly, PDD preserves the original RNA fragment boundaries as is required for nucleotide-resolution footprinting or base-cleavage studies. Finally, as PDD utilises unmodified DNA oligonucleotides it can provide a low-cost option for large-scale projects, or be flexibly customised to suit different depletion targets, sample types and organisms.This work was supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Grant (DP130101928) and a NHMRC Senior Research Fellowship (514904) awarded to TP. NES was supported by a Go8 European Fellowship. We acknowledge technical support from the Australian Cancer Research Foundation Biomolecular Resource Facility

Control of Translation at the Initiation Phase During Glucose Starvation in Yeast

Glucose is one of the most important sources of carbon across all life. Glucose starvation is a key stress relevant to all eukaryotic cells. Glucose starvation responses have important implications in diseases, such as diabetes and cancer. In yeast, glucose starvation causes rapid and dramatic effects on the synthesis of proteins (mRNA translation). Response to glucose deficiency targets the initiation phase of translation by different mechanisms and with diverse dynamics. Concomitantly, translationally repressed mRNAs and components of the protein synthesis machinery may enter a variety of cytoplasmic foci, which also form with variable kinetics and may store or degrade mRNA. Much progress has been made in understanding these processes in the last decade, including with the use of high-throughput/omics methods of RNA and RNA:protein detection. This review dissects the current knowledge of yeast reactions to glucose starvation systematized by the stage of translation initiation, with the focus on rapid responses. We provide parallels to mechanisms found in higher eukaryotes, such as metazoans, for the most critical responses, and point out major remaining gaps in knowledge and possible future directions of research on translational responses to glucose starvation.This research was funded by the ARC Discovery Project DP180100111 to N.E.S and T.P.; CC ACT Project Grant APP1120469 to T.P

Quantitative analysis of ribosome–mRNA complexes at different translation stages

Inhibition of primer extension by ribosome–mRNA complexes (toeprinting) is a proven and powerful technique for studying mechanisms of mRNA translation. Here we have assayed an advanced toeprinting approach that employs fluorescently labeled DNA primers, followed by capillary electrophoresis utilizing standard instruments for sequencing and fragment analysis. We demonstrate that this improved technique is not merely fast and cost-effective, but also brings the primer extension inhibition method up to the next level. The electrophoretic pattern of the primer extension reaction can be characterized with a precision unattainable by the common toeprint analysis utilizing radioactive isotopes. This method allows us to detect and quantify stable ribosomal complexes at all stages of translation, including initiation, elongation and termination, generated during the complete translation process in both the in vitro reconstituted translation system and the cell lysate. We also point out the unique advantages of this new methodology, including the ability to assay sites of the ribosomal complex assembly on several mRNA species in the same reaction mixture

Probe-directed degradation (PDD) for flexible removal of unwanted cDNA sequences from RNA-seq libraries

Most applications for RNA-seq require the depletion of abundant transcripts to gain greater coverage of the underlying transcriptome. The sequences to be targeted for depletion depend on application and species and in many cases may not be supported by commercial depletion kits. This unit describes a method for generating RNA-seq libraries that incorporates probe-directed degradation (PDD), which can deplete any unwanted sequence set, with the low-bias split-adapter method of library generation (although many other library generation methods are in principle compatible). The overall strategy is suitable for applications requiring customized sequence depletion or where faithful representation of fragment ends and lack of sequence bias is paramount. We provide guidelines to rapidly design specific probes against the target sequence, and a detailed protocol for library generation using the split-adapter method including several strategies for streamlining the technique and reducing adapter dimer contentThis work was supported by an Australian Research Council Discovery Grant (DP1300101928) and a NHMRC Senior Research Fellowship (514904) awarded to TP. NES was supported by a Go8 European Fellowshi

Probing the closed-loop model of mRNA translation in living cells

<p>The mRNA closed-loop, formed through interactions between the cap structure, poly(A) tail, eIF4E, eIF4G and PAB, features centrally in models of eukaryotic translation initiation, although direct support for its existence <i>in vivo</i> is not well established. Here, we investigated the closed-loop using a combination of mRNP isolation from rapidly cross-linked cells and high-throughput qPCR. Using the interaction between these factors and the opposing ends of mRNAs as a proxy for the closed-loop, we provide evidence that it is prevalent for eIF4E/4G-bound but unexpectedly sparse for PAB1-bound mRNAs, suggesting it primarily occurs during a distinct phase of polysome assembly. We observed mRNA-specific variation in the extent of closed-loop formation, consistent with a role for polysome topology in the control of gene expression.</p

Translation complex profile sequencing to study the in vivo dynamics of mRNA-ribosome interactions during translation initiation, elongation and termination

Messenger RNA (mRNA) translation is a tightly controlled process that is integral to gene expression. It features intricate and dynamic interactions of the small and large subunits of the ribosome with mRNAs, aided by multiple auxiliary factors during distinct initiation, elongation and termination phases. The recently developed ribosome profiling method can generate transcriptome-wide surveys of translation and its regulation. Ribosome profiling records the footprints of fully assembled ribosomes along mRNAs and thus primarily interrogates the elongation phase of translation. Importantly, it does not monitor multiple substeps of initiation and termination that involve complexes between the small ribosomal subunit (SSU) and mRNA. Here we describe a related method, termed 'translation complex profile sequencing' (TCP-seq), that is uniquely capable of recording positions of any type of ribosome-mRNA complex transcriptome-wide. It uses fast covalent fixation of translation complexes in live cells, followed by RNase footprinting of translation intermediates and their separation into complexes involving either the full ribosome or the SSU. The footprints derived from each type of complex are then deep-sequenced separately, generating native distribution profiles during the elongation, as well as the initiation and termination stages of translation. We provide the full TCP-seq protocol for Saccharomyces cerevisiae liquid suspension culture, including a data analysis pipeline. The protocol takes ∼3 weeks to complete by a researcher who is well acquainted with standard molecular biology techniques and who has some experience in ultracentrifugation and the preparation of RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) libraries. Basic Bash and UNIX/Linux command skills are required to use the bioinformatics tools provided.This work was supported by an ARC Discovery Grant (DP1300101928) and an NHMRC Senior Research Fellowship (514904) awarded to T.P. N.E.S. was supported by a Go8 European Fellowship