A Portable Rainfall Simulator for Plot–Scale Runoff Studies

Rainfall simulators have a long history of successful use in both laboratory and field investigations. Many plot–scale simulators, however, have been difficult to operate and transport in the field, especially in remote locations where water or electricity is unavailable. This article describes a new rainfall simulator that is relatively easy to operate and transport to and from the field while maintaining critical intensity, distribution, and energy characteristics of natural rainfall. The simulator frame is constructed from lightweight aluminum pipe with a single 50 WSQ nozzle centered at a height of 3 m (9.8 ft). An operating nozzle pressure of 28 kPa (4.1 psi) yields continuous flow at an intensity of 70 mm h-1 (2.8 in. h-1 ) over a 1.5– x 2–m (4.9– x 6.6–ft) plot area with a coefficient of uniformity of 93%. Kinetic energy of the rainfall is about 25 J m-2 mm-1 (142.8 ft–lb ft-2 in.-1), approximately 87% of natural rainfall. The simulator can be easily transported by two field personnel and completely assembled or disassembled in approximately 10 min. Water usage is at a minimum as the simulator utilizes only one nozzle

Application of Simplified Phosphorus Transport Models to Pasture Fields in Northwest Arkansas

Runoff transport of phosphorus (P) is often predicted from simple equations with parameters determined from data applicable primarily to row-cropped and fallow cover conditions. The applicability, accuracy, and precision of such P transport prediction equations under pasture situations are less well defined. The objectives of this study were to determine parameters of simplified runoff P transport equations for pasture fields and to assess the accuracy and precision of the equations. Runoff, sediment yield, soluble P transport, and particulate P transport data were collected from four pasture fields in northwestern Arkansas. Runoff event enrichment ratios and extraction coefficients were computed, and confidence limits on respective predicted particulate and soluble P transport were determined. An inverse linear relationship between the natural logarithms of enrichment ratio and sediment yield was found significant for all fields, but the slopes were lower than values reported earlier for general use. Runoff event extraction coefficients were considerably higher than those typically used and were highest for runoff occurring shortly following animal manure application. The 95% confidence limits on predicted soluble and particulate P transport varied in some cases by more than an order of magnitude, indicating that significant imprecision was associated with those predictions. The data suggested that the simplified model of soluble P transport might be a reasonable description of the processes for the fields, but that modification to the particulate P transport prediction method might be necessary to improve the prediction accuracy for low event sediment yields (\u3c 10 kg/ha)

Drivers of success in implementing sustainable tourism policies in urban areas

The existing literature in the field of sustainable tourism highlights a number of barriers that impede the implementation of policies in this area. Yet, not many studies have so far considered the factors that would contribute to putting this concept into practice, and few address the case of urban areas. The concept of sustainability has only received limited attention in urban tourism research, even though large cities are recognised as one of the most important tourist destinations that attract vast numbers of visitors. Adopting a case study approach, this paper discusses a number of drivers of success identified by policy-makers in London to contribute to the implementation of sustainable tourisms policies at the local level, and briefly looks at the relationship between these drivers and the constraints perceived by the respondents to hinder the implementation of such policies in practice. These findings may help policy-makers in other large cities to successfully develop and implement policies towards sustainable development of tourism in their area

Cyprus' image—a sun and sea destination—as a detrimental factor to seasonal fluctuations. Exploration into motivational factors for holidaying in Cyprus

Cyprus is established as a summer destination. To aid the destination in developing its winter season as well, this research uses a qualitative inductive approach to explore the tourists’ current image of the island and their motivations of visiting it. The research indicates that the current image, which essentially portrays Cyprus as a sun-and-sea destination is thought to dissuade tourists from perceiving the island as a year-round destination. Nonetheless, increasing the pull factors of the destination through the development of unique special interest products can help in extending the tourism season as well as broaden its narrow image

Correlating Soil Test Phosphorus Losses in Runoff

Phosphorus in agricultural runoff is often a major cause of accelerated eutrophication of lakes and streams. Previous research has indicated that the amount of dissolved P (DP) in runoff is directly related to P content of the surface soil. Decades of fertilizer application at rates exceeding those of crop uptake have elevated soil test P (STP) levels in areas of intensive crop and livestock production, making this the major source of DP loss in runoff. The objective of our experiment was to relate STP content of Captina silt loam to P concentration and loss in runoff, and determine which STP method correlates best to P levels in runoff. The 57 grass plots used in this study had a wide range of STP levels. A representative soil sample was composited from the 0-2 cm depth of each plot, and STP content was determined by Mehlich III, distilled water, and iron oxide paper strip extraction methods. Simulated rain was applied at 100 mm h-1. Runoff samples were filtered and analyzed for DP content. Regression methods showed STP (regardless of extraction method) was directly related to runoff DP, but extractions with distilled water or iron oxide paper strips gave results that correlated most closely with runoff DP concentrations. Because plot runoff totals were highly variable, total DP load did not correlate well with STP

Dark London: Dimensions and characteristics of dark tourism supply in the UK capital

This paper will investigate the characteristics of the supply of dark tourism in London, UK through an examination of the identified main dark sites in London, UK. Our methodology is based on web analysis of the presence of marketed and non-marketed dark tourist sites in London, their web visitation, the level of their commercialisation and the characteristics which place them in the various scales as categorised in current literature, notably Stone (2006). We identified that London offers a much more entertainment focussed tourism experience rather than accurate historical and authentic sites which utilised major aspects of dark tourism for purposes such as commemoration or remembrance. The authors found this surprising given London’s long and often dark history

Tourism policy and destination marketing in developing countries: the chain of influence

Tourism marketers including destination marketing organisations (DMOs) and international tour operators play a pivotal role in destination marketing, especially in creating destination images. These images, apparent in tourist brochures, are designed to influence tourist decision-making and behaviour. This paper proposes the concept of a “chain of influence” in destination marketing and image-making, suggesting that the content of marketing materials is influenced by the priorities of those who design these materials, e.g. tour operators and DMOs. A content analysis of 2,000 pictures from DMO and tour operator brochures revealed synergies and divergence between these marketers. The brochure content was then compared to the South African tourism policy, concluding that the dominant factor in the chain of influence in the South African context is in fact its organic image

More than sense of place? Exploring the emotional dimension of rural tourism experiences

It is widely suggested that participation in rural tourism is underpinned by a sense of rural place or “rurality”. However, although nature and the countryside have long been recognised as a source of spiritual or emotional fulfilment, few have explored the extent to which tourism, itself often claimed to be a sacred experience, offers an emotional/spiritual dimension in the rural context. This paper addresses that literature gap. Using in-depth interviews with rural tourists in the English Lake District, it explores the extent to which, within respondents’ individual understanding of spirituality, a relationship exists between sense of place and deeper, emotional experiences and, especially, whether participation in rural tourism may induce spiritual or emotional responses. The research revealed that all respondents felt a strong attachment to the Lake District; similarly, and irrespective of their openness to spirituality, engaging in rural tourism activities resulted in highly emotive experiences for all respondents, the description/interpretation of such experiences being determined by individual “beliefs”. However, sense of place was not a prerequisite to emotional or spiritual experiences. Being in and engaging with the landscape � effectively becoming part of it � especially through physical activity is fundamental to emotional responses

Modeling sediment mobilization using a distributed hydrological model coupled with a bank stability model

In addition to surface erosion, stream bank erosion and failure contributes significant sediment and sediment-bound nutrients to receiving waters during high flow events. However, distributed and mechanistic simulation of stream bank sediment contribution to sediment loads in a watershed has not been achieved. Here we present a full coupling of existing distributed watershed and bank stability models and apply the resulting model to the Mad River in central Vermont. We fully coupled the Bank Stability and Toe Erosion Model (BSTEM) with the Distributed Hydrology Soil Vegetation Model (DHSVM) to allow the simulation of stream bank erosion and potential failure in a spatially explicit environment. We demonstrate the model\u27s ability to simulate the impacts of unstable streams on sediment mobilization and transport within a watershed and discuss the model\u27s capability to simulate watershed sediment loading under climate change. The calibrated model simulates total suspended sediment loads and reproduces variability in suspended sediment concentrations at watershed and subbasin outlets. In addition, characteristics such as land use and road-to-stream ratio of subbasins are shown to impact the relative proportions of sediment mobilized by overland erosion, erosion of roads, and stream bank erosion and failure in the subbasins and watershed. This coupled model will advance mechanistic simulation of suspended sediment mobilization and transport from watersheds, which will be particularly valuable for investigating the potential impacts of climate and land use changes, as well as extreme events