A new pathogen transmission mechanism in the ocean: the case of sea otter exposure to the land-parasite Toxoplasma gondii.

Toxoplasma gondii is a land-derived parasite that infects humans and marine mammals. Infections are a significant cause of mortality for endangered southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis), but the transmission mechanism is poorly understood. Otter exposure to T. gondii has been linked to the consumption of marine turban snails in kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) forests. It is unknown how turban snails acquire oocysts, as snails scrape food particles attached to surfaces, whereas T. gondii oocysts enter kelp beds as suspended particles via runoff. We hypothesized that waterborne T. gondii oocysts attach to kelp surfaces when encountering exopolymer substances (EPS) forming the sticky matrix of biofilms on kelp, and thus become available to snails. Results of a dietary composition analysis of field-collected snails and of kelp biofilm indicate that snails graze the dense kelp-biofilm assemblage composed of pennate diatoms and bacteria inserted within the EPS gel-like matrix. To test whether oocysts attach to kelp blades via EPS, we designed a laboratory experiment simulating the kelp forest canopy in tanks spiked with T. gondii surrogate microspheres and controlled for EPS and transparent exopolymer particles (TEP - the particulate form of EPS). On average, 19% and 31% of surrogates were detected attached to kelp surfaces covered with EPS in unfiltered and filtered seawater treatments, respectively. The presence of TEP in the seawater did not increase surrogate attachment. These findings support a novel transport mechanism of T. gondii oocysts: as oocysts enter the kelp forest canopy, a portion adheres to the sticky kelp biofilms. Snails grazing this biofilm encounter oocysts as 'bycatch' and thereby deliver the parasite to sea otters that prey upon snails. This novel mechanism can have health implications beyond T. gondii and otters, as a similar route of pathogen transmission may be implicated with other waterborne pathogens to marine wildlife and humans consuming biofilm-feeding invertebrates

An Analysis of the Fair Use Defense in Dr. Seuss Enterprises v. Penguin

This note sets forth the facts and procedural history of Dr. Seuss Enterprises v. Penguin, which is the most recent Ninth Circuit copyright decision presenting the affirmative fair use defense. Section III provides a brief background of copyright law and the fair use defense. Section III also presents a historical view of the fact-sensitive, case-by-case analysis of the four statutory fair use defense factors codified in 17 U.S.C. § 107. Section IV examines the Ninth Circuit\u27s decision in Dr. Seuss Enterprises v. Penguin, focusing on Seuss Enterprises\u27 copyright infringement claim. Section V critically analyzes the Ninth Circuit\u27s holding, focusing on the validity of the court\u27s determination that the infringing work was not a parody, nor transformative. Section VI then briefly summarizes the court\u27s decision and its implications

An Analysis of the Fair Use Defense in Dr. Seuss Enterprises v. Penguin

This note sets forth the facts and procedural history of Dr. Seuss Enterprises v. Penguin, which is the most recent Ninth Circuit copyright decision presenting the affirmative fair use defense. Section III provides a brief background of copyright law and the fair use defense. Section III also presents a historical view of the fact-sensitive, case-by-case analysis of the four statutory fair use defense factors codified in 17 U.S.C. § 107. Section IV examines the Ninth Circuit\u27s decision in Dr. Seuss Enterprises v. Penguin, focusing on Seuss Enterprises\u27 copyright infringement claim. Section V critically analyzes the Ninth Circuit\u27s holding, focusing on the validity of the court\u27s determination that the infringing work was not a parody, nor transformative. Section VI then briefly summarizes the court\u27s decision and its implications

Intellectual Property Law - Blockbuster Videos Inc. v. City of Tempe

In a matter of first impression, the United Sates Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, in Blockbuster Videos, Inc. v. City of Tempe, considered whether section 1121(b) of the Lanham Act preempts a municipality\u27s authority to require the alteration of a federally registered trademark. Based on the plain language of the statute, the court held that a local entity may not require the alteration of a trademark to enforce a zoning ordinance, though it may prohibit the display of the trademark

Intellectual Property Law - Blockbuster Videos Inc. v. City of Tempe

In a matter of first impression, the United Sates Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, in Blockbuster Videos, Inc. v. City of Tempe, considered whether section 1121(b) of the Lanham Act preempts a municipality\u27s authority to require the alteration of a federally registered trademark. Based on the plain language of the statute, the court held that a local entity may not require the alteration of a trademark to enforce a zoning ordinance, though it may prohibit the display of the trademark

Using Poetry With Adolescents in a Remedial Reading Program: A Case Study

Teachers who teach reading to low-achieving adolescents know that good, high-interest, low-vocabulary instructional materials are difficult to find and sometimes unavailable. Even when good materials are available in the form of magazine articles, short stories, and easy novels, they are often overwhelming to an adolescent who is reading four-to five years or more below grade level

Completing College: A National View of Student Attainment Rates

College completion, earning a degree or certificate, is considered to be a key college success outcome, supported by every educational policymaker. Yet, institutions and policymakers in the U.S. know surprisingly little about the rates of completion for students who follow all but the most traditional of postsecondary pathways. This is because traditional graduation rate calculations are institution based and only count students who finish at the same institution where they started. Building on findings from previous reports in the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center's Signature Report series, this new report measures this key college success outcome -- rates of first completion -- encompassing postsecondary credentials of all levels and types at any institution in any state, whether it is the first, second, third, or more, attended.Students in the U.S. pursuing a postsecondary education move along pathways that are increasingly complex. In its second Signature Report, Transfer and Mobility: A National View of Pre-Degree Student Movement in Postsecondary Institutions (Hossler et al., 2012), the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center found that one-third of first-time college students attended multiple institutions before earning a degree or certificate. Nontraditional students, like those who postpone college enrollment after high school, attend college part time, and/or have full-time jobs, have become the new majority among U.S. college students. This emphasizes the limitations of continuing to rely on traditional measures of student and institutional success that describe only first-time full-time students who never enroll at any institution other than their starting institution. Such measures fail to capture the full range of outcomes among today's college students. They also fail to recognize institutional and policy efforts to support students pursuing diverse pathways.This report draws on the Clearinghouse database's near-census national coverage of enrollments and awarded degrees to explore the six-year outcomes of a cohort of first-time-in-college degree-seeking students who started in fall 2006 (N=1,878,484)

Aquatic polymers can drive pathogen transmission in coastal ecosystems.

Gelatinous polymers including extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) are fundamental to biophysical processes in aquatic habitats, including mediating aggregation processes and functioning as the matrix of biofilms. Yet insight into the impact of these sticky molecules on the environmental transmission of pathogens in the ocean is limited. We used the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii as a model to evaluate polymer-mediated mechanisms that promote transmission of terrestrially derived pathogens to marine fauna and humans. We show that transparent exopolymer particles, a particulate form of EPS, enhance T. gondii association with marine aggregates, material consumed by organisms otherwise unable to access micrometre-sized particles. Adhesion to EPS biofilms on macroalgae also captures T. gondii from the water, enabling uptake of pathogens by invertebrates that feed on kelp surfaces. We demonstrate the acquisition, concentration and retention of T. gondii by kelp-grazing snails, which can transmit T. gondii to threatened California sea otters. Results highlight novel mechanisms whereby aquatic polymers facilitate incorporation of pathogens into food webs via association with particle aggregates and biofilms. Identifying the critical role of invisible polymers in transmission of pathogens in the ocean represents a fundamental advance in understanding and mitigating the health impacts of coastal habitat pollution with contaminated runoff