Reubicación forzada en la antigua capital de Birmania

La población de Yangón se ha visto obligada a reasentarse de forma masiva bajo el régimen militar

Forced relocation in Burma’s former capital

The population of Yangon has experienced coerciveresettlement on a truly massive scale under military rule

Japan’s Development Ambitions for Myanmar: The Problem of “Economics before Politics”

Myanmar and Japan have had an important shared history since the Pacific War, when Japan occupied the British colony of Burma and established the country’s first postcolonial state and army. The period from 1941 to 1945 also witnessed the “militarization” of Myanmar as the country was turned into a battlefield by the Japanese, the Allies and indigenous insurgents. After independence from Britain in 1948, the Union of Burma continued to suffer insurgency and became a deeply conflicted society, especially under the isolationist socialist regime of General Ne Win (1962–1988). However, Japan played a major role in Myanmar’s economic development through its allocation of war reparations and official development assistance (ODA), especially yen loans. During the period of martial law from 1988 to 2011, Tokyo exercised some self-restraint in giving aid due to pressure from its major ally, the United States, with its human rights agenda. However, with the transition from junta rule to constitutional government in 2011 came a dramatic increase in Japanese ODA, as Tokyo forgave large amounts of debt and invested in ambitious new special economic zones (SEZ). Japan will no doubt benefit from Myanmar as close ties are expanded: Not only will Japanese companies profit, but Japan will have access to Myanmar’s raw materials and gain ability to compete more effectively with an economically expansive China. On Myanmar’s side, though, it is unlikely that anyone other than the military and crony capitalist elites will benefit from the flood of new yen loans and infrastructure projects. This paper argues that without a political resolution of Myanmar’s many conflicts, including the establishment of genuinely open political institutions, the aid of Japan (and other countries) is likely to make these deep-rooted social and ethnic conflicts even worse

Japan's Development Ambitions for Myanmar: the Problem of "Economics before Politics"

Myanmar and Japan have had an important shared history since the Pacific War, when Japan occupied the British colony of Burma and established the country's first postcolonial state and army. The period from 1941 to 1945 also witnessed the 'militarization' of Myanmar as the country was turned into a battlefield by the Japanese, the Allies and indigenous insurgents. After independence from Britain in 1948, the Union of Burma continued to suffer insurgency and became a deeply conflicted society, especially under the isolationist socialist regime of General Ne Win (1962-1988). However, Japan played a major role in Myanmar's economic development through its allocation of war reparations and official development assistance (ODA), especially yen loans. During the period of martial law from 1988 to 2011, Tokyo exercised some self-restraint in giving aid due to pressure from its major ally, the United States, with its human rights agenda. However, with the transition from junta rule to constitutional government in 2011 came a dramatic increase in Japanese ODA, as Tokyo forgave large amounts of debt and invested in ambitious new special economic zones (SEZ). Japan will no doubt benefit from Myanmar as close ties are expanded: Not only will Japanese companies profit, but Japan will have access to Myanmar's raw materials and gain ability to compete more effectively with an economically expansive China. On Myanmar's side, though, it is unlikely that anyone other than the military and crony capitalist elites will benefit from the flood of new yen loans and infrastructure projects. This paper argues that without a political resolution of Myanmar's many conflicts, including the establishment of genuinely open political institutions, the aid of Japan (and other countries) is likely to make these deep-rooted social and ethnic conflicts even worse. (author's abstract

Japan’s Development Ambitions for Myanmar: The Problem of “Economics before Politics”

Myanmar and Japan have had an important shared history since the Pacific War, when Japan occupied the British colony of Burma and established the country’s first postcolonial state and army. The period from 1941 to 1945 also witnessed the “militarization” of Myanmar as the country was turned into a battlefield by the Japanese, the Allies and indigenous insurgents. After independence from Britain in 1948, the Union of Burma continued to suffer insurgency and became a deeply conflicted society, especially under the isolationist socialist regime of General Ne Win (1962–1988). However, Japan played a major role in Myanmar’s economic development through its allocation of war reparations and official development assistance (ODA), especially yen loans. During the period of martial law from 1988 to 2011, Tokyo exercised some self-restraint in giving aid due to pressure from its major ally, the United States, with its human rights agenda. However, with the transition from junta rule to constitutional government in 2011 came a dramatic increase in Japanese ODA, as Tokyo forgave large amounts of debt and invested in ambitious new special economic zones (SEZ). Japan will no doubt benefit from Myanmar as close ties are expanded: Not only will Japanese companies profit, but Japan will have access to Myanmar’s raw materials and gain ability to compete more effectively with an economically expansive China. On Myanmar’s side, though, it is unlikely that anyone other than the military and crony capitalist elites will benefit from the flood of new yen loans and infrastructure projects. This paper argues that without a political resolution of Myanmar’s many conflicts, including the establishment of genuinely open political institutions, the aid of Japan (and other countries) is likely to make these deep-rooted social and ethnic conflicts even worse

Naypyidaw: A field study of Burma's new national capital

This field study shows how the layout and design of Naypyidaw city, its “landscapes of power,” represent the vision of the military regime and its constitutional successor for a “new” Myanmar, a country that is modern, traditional, efficient, but – above all – unified and controlled from the top down. Described succinctly, the role of the new capital is not only to provide enhanced security for the regime, but to proclaim its cultural and “nation-building” agenda.Naypyidaw: A Field Study of Burma’s New National Capital •In November of 2005, the State Peace and Development Council, Burma’s (Myanmar’s) military regime at the time, announced the relocation of the country’s capital, which had been at Rangoon since the middle of the 19th century, to an entirely new site located 320 kilometers to the north, which was given the official name of NAYPYIDAW, usually translated from Burmese as “the royal city” or “the abode of the king.” The new city is very large in area, over 2,700 square miles or 7,000 square kilometers, and has a population estimated at a little under one million people, though the new city’s area encloses some much older settlements. •In January of this year, I went to Naypyidaw in order to study the new city’s layout and design, which is very different from those of Rangoon. I discovered an ultra-modern city, connected by wide highways, which seemed at times more like an American suburban development than a Southeast Asian capital. In the very center of the new city is a Buddhist pagoda, the Upattasanti Pagoda, which is a replica of the Shwedagon Pagoda in Rangoon, the holiest site in Burmese Buddhism. Its construction was sponsored by the head of the military junta (now retired), Senior General Than Shwe, who cast himself in a kingly role. Traditionally, Burmese have believed that no human settlement, whether it is a royal capital or a humble village, could be complete without a Buddhist pagoda, a reliquary for Buddha relics and place for meditation and contemplation. This slide shows the Shwedagon Pagoda, north of the city center of Rangoon. Unlike the Shwedagon, which is a solid structure, the Upattasanti Pagoda is hollow and lavishly decorated inside. In deference to the Shwedagon’s supreme status, the new pagoda was built 30 centimeters lower than the Shwedagon’s 99.4 meter height. Around the central column of the Upattasanti Pagoda’s central chamber are images of the Four Buddhas of our era, including the latest, Gotama Buddha. This image is made of jade. This slide was taken from the platform of the Upattasanti Pagoda, showing the surrounding countryside. There are uplands (the Shan Plateau) in the distance. Naypyidaw’s natural environment is rather dry, dominated by rice and vegetable fields, sugar palms and scrub vegetation. Now we view Naypyidaw’s secular landscapes. Here is a slide of the imposing new Hluttaw (national legislature) building, an imposing structure that seems ‘pharonic’ in design, like a set from the movie The Ten Commandments. This is another view of the Hluttaw building. Burmese architectural styles are apparent, especially the tiered roofs. Important aspects of the city are its different commercial centers. This is a rather traditional one, the Myoma Market, which looks similar to markets found in many Southeast Asian towns and cities. However, Naypyidaw also boasts a newer type of retail establishment, the multi-storey Junction Shopping Centre, which is similar to those found in developed countries. The Myanmar International Convention Centre will be the venue for the 2014 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) summit, when it is Myanmar’s turn to serve, for the first time, as ASEAN’s chair. Myanmar joined ASEAN in 1997. This is a highway near the Convention Centre. While Rangoon’s streets are clogged with traffic, Naypyidaw’s wide boulevards are largely empty, save for the occasional motorbike, taxi or truck. Naypyidaw is a very ‘thinly-connected’ landscape, with poor public transportation. There are as many as 1,500 modern, mid-rise apartment buildings to house civil servants, such as this one. This very modern looking building, probably an auditorium or gallery, is being built in the Hotel Zone, where many foreign visitors stay. It is typical of Naypyidaw architecture. This bungalow is one of many found at the Thingaha Hotel, on extensive and nicely landscaped grounds. Naypyidaw is dotted with roundabouts decorated with flower motifs, such as this one. The roundabouts are landmarks, and in a sense plural “centers” in the otherwise de-centered city. The National Landscape Garden (NLG), with two tall viewing towers. The NLG is a large park that is in the shape of the country of Burma, containing miniatures of its most important sites. In this symbolic manner, the new capital “contains” the entire country. Here, for example, is a small replica of Rangoon City Hall in the National Landscape Garden. Here is a road that leads to the huge Military Compound, the headquarters of Burma’s armed forces, which visitors cannot photograph. However, one can see the gates leading to the compound in the distance. Generally, the military presence in Naypyidaw is rather low key. My Thanks to the University College, University of Maryland, for generously providing a Faculty Research Grant which made this fieldwork – a small part of which is displayed here – possible. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D

Naypyidaw, Myanmar's (Burma's) new capital city: The landscapes of power

Summary Report for the project, "Naypyidaw, Myanmar's New Capital City - the Landscapes of Power." shows how the layout and design of the city, its “landscapes of power,” represent the vision of the military regime and its constitutional successor for a “new” Myanmar, a country that is modern, traditional, efficient, but – above all – unified and controlled from the top down. Described succinctly, the role of the new capital is not only to provide enhanced security for the regime, but to proclaim its cultural and “nation-building” agenda.1 University of Maryland College University of Maryland College University of Maryland College University of Maryland College University of Maryland College University of Maryland CollegeUniversity of Maryland University CollegeUniversity of Maryland University CollegeUniversity of Maryland University College University of Maryland CollegeUniversity of Maryland University College University of Maryland College University of Maryland CollegeUniversity of Maryland University College University of Maryland CollegeUniversity of Maryland University College University of Maryland College Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012Faculty Research Grant Program, 2012 Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D.Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Donald M. Seekins, Ph.D. Summary Report: Summary Report: Summary Report: Summary Report: Summary Report: Summary Report: Summary Report: Summary Report: “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City “Naypyidaw, Myanmar’s (Burma’s) New Capital City – the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” the Landscapes of Power.” Introduction: Introduction: Introduction: Introduction: In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State In November 2005, Myanmar’s military government, the State Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Peace and Development Council, decreed the relocation of country’s capital from Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named Yangon (Rangoon) to an entirely new city that was officially named NaypyidawNaypyidaw NaypyidawNaypyidawNaypyidaw , or “the , or “the , or “the , or “the , or “the Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new Abode of the King.” The new capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 capital is located in the center of country, 335 kilometers (210 m kilometers (210 m kilometers (210 m kilometers (210 m iles) north of the old capital. iles) north of the old capital.iles) north of the old capital. iles) north of the old capital. iles) north of the old capital. iles) north of the old capital. iles) north of the old capital.iles) north of the old capital. Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focusStudies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus Studies of Naypyidaw published since its establishment have focus ed on the on the on the junta’s rational junta’s rational junta’s rational junta’s rational junta’s rational junta’s rational junta’s rational junta’s rational e for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: for capital relocation, which can be summarized as: (1) (1) thethe ir desire to desire to desire to desire to remove themselves from the remove themselves from the remove themselves from the remove themselves from the remove themselves from the remove themselves from the remove themselves from the rundown, overpopulated rundown, overpopulated rundown, overpopulated rundown, overpopulated rundown, overpopulated rundown, overpopulated old capital, which old capital, which old capital, which old capital, which old capital, which old capital, which old capital, which old capital, which historically has historically has historically has historically has historically has historically has historically has historically has historically has been beenbeen prone to popular insurrections prone to popular insurrections prone to popular insurrectionsprone to popular insurrections prone to popular insurrections prone to popular insurrectionsprone to popular insurrections prone to popular insurrections prone to popular insurrectionsprone to popular insurrectionsprone to popular insurrections prone to popular insurrections ; (2) ; (2) ; (2) the advantages of ha the advantages of hathe advantages of ha the advantages of hathe advantages of ha the advantages of ha the advantages of ha the advantages of hathe advantages of ha ving a power center close ving a power center closeving a power center closeving a power center closeving a power center closeving a power center close ving a power center close ving a power center closeving a power center closeving a power center close ving a power center closeving a power center closeving a power center close to Myanmar’s to Myanmar’s to Myanmar’s to Myanmar’s to Myanmar’s to Myanmar’s to Myanmar’s border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control border areas, making it easier to control crosscross -border tr border tr border tr ade and ade and ade and ade and ade and ade and ethnic ethnic ethnic ethnic minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and minority armed groups; and (3) (3) the perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capital the perceived security of an inland capitalthe perceived security of an inland capital, which which unlike unlike unlike coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by coastal Yangon would not be threatened by

Japan’s Development Ambitions for Myanmar: The Problem of “Economics before Politicsâ€

Myanmar and Japan have had an important shared history since the Pacific War, when Japan occupied the British colony of Burma and established the country’s first postcolonial state and army. The period from 1941 to 1945 also witnessed the “militarization†of Myanmar as the country was turned into a battlefield by the Japanese, the Allies and indigenous insurgents. After independence from Britain in 1948, the Union of Burma continued to suffer insurgency and became a deeply conflicted society, especially under the isolationist socialist regime of General Ne Win (1962–1988). However, Japan played a major role in Myanmar’s economic development through its allocation of war reparations and official development assistance (ODA), especially yen loans. During the period of martial law from 1988 to 2011, Tokyo exercised some self-restraint in giving aid due to pressure from its major ally, the United States, with its human rights agenda. However, with the transition from junta rule to constitutional government in 2011 came a dramatic increase in Japanese ODA, as Tokyo forgave large amounts of debt and invested in ambitious new special economic zones (SEZ). Japan will no doubt benefit from Myanmar as close ties are expanded: Not only will Japanese companies profit, but Japan will have access to Myanmar’s raw materials and gain ability to compete more effectively with an economically expansive China. On Myanmar’s side, though, it is unlikely that anyone other than the military and crony capitalist elites will benefit from the flood of new yen loans and infrastructure projects. This paper argues that without a political resolution of Myanmar’s many conflicts, including the establishment of genuinely open political institutions, the aid of Japan (and other countries) is likely to make these deep-rooted social and ethnic conflicts even worse