Some thoughts about the single crystal growth of small molecules

This highlight critically compares various techniques to grow single crystals when only a few milligrams are available of the compound of interest. The authors describe vapour diffusion, evaporation, cooling, and layering techniques, as well as crystallisation in gels. A table of successfully applied solvent/antisolvent combinations for initial screening is given. Additionally, a comprehensive table of 107 solvents with their boiling points, densities and dielectric constants helps to optimise the crystal growth

From porphyrins to pyrphyrins: adsorption study and metalation of a molecular catalyst on Au(111)

The molecular ligand pyrphyrin, a tetradentate bipyridine based macrocycle, represents an interesting but widely unexplored class of molecules. It resembles the well-known porphyrin, but consists of pyridyl subunits instead of pyrroles. Metal complexes based on pyrphyrin ligands have recently shown promise as water reduction catalysts in homogeneous photochemical water splitting reactions. In this study, the adsorption and metalation of pyrphyrin on a single crystalline Au(111) surface is investigated in an ultrahigh vacuum by means of scanning tunneling microscopy, low-energy electron diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and density functional theory. Pyrphyrin coverages of approximately one monolayer and less are obtained by sublimation of the molecules on the substrate kept at room temperature. The molecules self-assemble in two distinct phases of long-range molecular ordering depending on the surface coverage. The deposition of cobalt metal and subsequent annealing lead to the formation of Co-ligated pyrphyrin molecules accompanied by a pronounced change of the molecular self-assembly. Electronic structure calculations taking the herringbone reconstruction of Au(111) into account show that the molecules are physisorbed, but preferred adsorption sites are identified where Co and the N atoms of the two terminal cyano groups are optimally coordinated to the surface Au atoms. An intermediate state of the metalation reaction is observed and the reaction steps for the Co metalation of pyrphyrin molecules on Au(111) are established in a joint experimental and computational effort

The impact of metalation on adsorption geometry, electronic level alignment and UV-stability of organic macrocycles on TiO2(110)

Metal complexes of the tetradentate bipyridine based macrocycle pyrphyrin (Pyr) have recently shown promise as water reduction catalysts in homogeneous photochemical water splitting reactions. In this study, the adsorption and metalation of pyrphyrin on stoichiometric TiO2(110) is investigated in ultrahigh vacuum by means of scanning tunneling microscopy, photoelectron spectroscopy, low-energy electron diffraction, and density functional theory. In a joint experimental and computational effort, the local adsorption geometry at low coverage, the long-range molecular ordering at higher coverage and the electronic structure have been determined for both the bare ligand and the cobalt-metalated Pyr molecule on TiO2. The energy level alignment of CoPyr/TiO2 supports electron injection into TiO2 upon photoexcitation of the CoPyr complex and thus renders it a potential sensitizer dye. Importantly, Co-incorporation is found to stabilize the Pyr molecule against photo-induced degradation, while the bare ligand is decomposed rapidly under continuous UV-irradiation. This interesting phenomenon is discussed in terms of additional de-excitation channels for electronically highly excited molecular states

On-Surface Metalation and 2D Self-Assembly of Pyrphyrin Molecules Into Metal-Coordinated Networks on Cu(111)

The metalation of the tetradentate molecule pyrphyrin by copper substrate atoms on a Cu(111) surface is studied. Pyrphyrin, in contrast to porphyrin, consists of four fused pyridine groups instead of pyrrol groups. Using thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) and N 1s X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), we show that metalation of the monolayer of pyrphyrin with Cu atoms from the Cu(111) surface occurs at 377 K. The formation of an extended two-dimensional (2D) network is observed with scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). A honeycomb-like lattice of metalated pyrphyrin molecules is formed by intermolecular connection via the two cyano groups at the periphery of pyrphyrin as well as Cu adatoms. Dehydrogenation at the periphery of the molecule is observed during annealing at 520 K. The surface-adsorbed metal-pyrphyrin has the potential to serve as a molecular catalyst

Identification of On-Surface Reaction Mechanism by Targeted Metalation

Chemical reactions occurring on surfaces may provide an alternate route to materials beyond traditional methods, for example, large polymers or compounds that would react further in ambient conditions or lack solubility. Many on-surface reactions yield atomic hydrogen that then desorbs swiftly from noble metals of group 11 (Cu, Ag, Au). Using a porphyrin-related macrocycle, so-called pyrphyrin, also bearing two cyano groups at the periphery, we show that dehydrogenation of the center of the macrocycle leads to selective formation of hydrogen cyanide, created from the rim-cyano groups and the hydrogen of the center imine (NH). Formally, the surface-remaining reaction product is a dicarbene, bearing two divalent carbon atoms. It reacts readily with Fe atoms at room temperature, unlike its pyrphyrin precursor, which requires annealing for metalation with Fe. The hydrogen cyanide abstraction becomes suppressed when pyrphyrin is metalated with iron atoms because the absence of the two hydrogen atoms does not allow the tautomerization

Atomically resolved band bending effects in a p-n heterojunction of Cu2_2O and a cobalt macrocycle

We present a hetero junction based on macrocyclic hydrogen evolution catalysts (HEC) physisorbed on a single crystalline Cu$_2$O(111) surface. Angle-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (ARXPS) provides the spatial resolution of the band bending within the first nanometer of the subsurface region. Oxygen vacancies on the Cu$_2$O(111) surface cause a downward band bending which is conserved upon adsorption of HEC layers of various thicknesses. This allows photoexcited electrons to be directed toward the surface where they can be made available for the reduction of protons by the HEC. Furthermore, Poisson’s equation relates more subtle changes in the measured ARXPS spectra to the local charge density profile within the first 7 Å away from the surface and with atomic resolution. All observations are consistent with a polarization of the molecular layer in response to the electrical field at the oxide surface, which should be a general phenomenon at such organic-oxide heterointerfaces

Ranking the Stability of Transition-Metal Complexes by On-Surface Atom Exchange

Surface-adsorbed macrocycles exhibit a number of interesting physical and chemical properties; many of them are determined by their transition-metal centers. The hierarchical exchange of the central metal atom in such surface-adsorbed complexes is demonstrated, specifically in the porphyrin-like macrocycle pyrphyrin adsorbed on Cu(111). Using scanning tunneling microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, we show that Cu as central metal atom is easily exchanged with Ni or Fe atoms supplied in trace amounts to the surface. Atom exchange of Ni centers with Fe atoms also occurs, with moderate yield. These results allow ranking the stability of the surface-adsorbed Cu, Ni, and Fe complexes. The fact that the atom exchange occurs at 423 K shows that surface-adsorbed macrocycles can be surprisingly easily transformed

Cobalt complexes of tetradentate, bipyridine-based macrocycles: their structures, properties and photocatalytic proton reduction

Complexes with purely pyridine-based macrocycles are rarely studied in photo(electro)catalysis. We synthesized and investigated macrocycles, in which two 2,2′-bipyridine (bpy) units are linked twice by two cyano-methylene groups, to yield the basic tetradentate, bipyridine based ligand framework (pyr). The protons in the bridges were substituted to obtain derivatives with one (pyr-alk) or two (pyr-alk2) alkyl-chains, respectively. We present the crystal structures of the mono-pentylated and the cis-dibutylated ligands. The corresponding CoII complexes [CoII(OH2)2(pyr)], [CoIIBr(HOMe)(pyr-bu)], [CoIIBr2(cis-pyr-bu2)] and [CoIIBr2(trans-pyr-bu2)] were prepared, their physico-chemical properties elucidated and their crystal structures determined. X-ray analyses revealed for the latter three complexes distorted octahedral coordination and a fairly planar {CoII(pyr)} macrocyclic scaffold. The axial bromides in [CoIIBr(HOMe)(pyr-bu)], [CoIIBr2(cis-pyr-bu2)] and [CoIIBr2(trans-pyr-bu2)] are weakly bound and dissociate upon dissolution in water. While the alkylated complexes are paramagnetic and feature CoII d7 high spin configurations, the unsubstituted complex [CoII(OH2)2(pyr)] displays a rare CoII low spin configuration. The electronic ground states of [CoIIBr2(cis-pyr-bu2)] and [CoIIBr2(trans-pyr-bu2)] are similar, as evident from the almost identical UV/vis spectra. Electrochemical analyses show redox-non-innocent ligand frameworks. All complexes are highly robust and efficient H+ reducing catalysts. In the presence of [Ru(bpy)3]Cl2 as a photosensitizer and TCEP/NaHasc as a sacrificial electron donor and shuttle, turnover numbers (TONs, H2/Co) up to 22 000 were achieved