Examining the Fairness of the University Entrance Exam: A Latent Class Analysis Approach to Differential Item Functioning

Measurement has been ubiquitous in all areas of education for at least a century. Various methods have been suggested to examine the fairness of education tests especially in high-stakes contexts. The present study has adopted the newly proposed ecological approach to differential item functioning (DIF) to investigate the fairness of the Iranian nationwide university entrance exam. To this end, the actual data from an administration of the test were obtained and analyzed through both traditional logistic regression and latent class analysis (LCA) techniques. The initial DIF analysis through logistic regression revealed that 19 items (out of 70) showed either uniform or non-uniform DIF. Further examination of the sample through LCA showed that the sample is not homogeneous. LCA class enumeration revealed that three classes can be identified in the sample. DIF analysis for separate latent classes showed that three serious differences in the number of DIF items identified in each latent class ranging from zero items in latent class 3 to 43 items in latent class 2. The inclusion of the covariates in the model also showed that latent class membership could be significantly predicted from high school GPA, field of study, and acceptance quota. It is argued that the fairness of the test might be under question. The implications of the findings for the validity of the test are discussed in detail

Pharmacology and Molecular Identity of Serotonin Receptor in Bivalve Mollusks

It is now known that 5-HT regulates several neurobehavioral systems such as mood, appetite, sleep, learning, and memory. It also plays critical roles in the physiological functions of peripheral organs involved in stress, growth, and reproduction in the animal kingdom. 5-HT content has seen to be higher in the nervous system of bivalves than those of other examined invertebrates and vertebrates. Thus, bivalves have been considered as an excellent model to investigate 5-HT functions in neurological and peripheral systems. The present study reviews knowledge on 5-HT signaling mediated through 5-HT receptor and its physiological contribution to regulate reproduction in bivalves. Two G-protein-coupled 5-HT1-like receptors have been cloned in bivalve species. However, binding affinities of the 5-HT agonists and antagonists to the isolated plasma membrane proteins and their effects on spawning in bivalves suggest the presence of a single or mixed 5-HT1-, 5-HT2-, and 5-HT3-like receptors. It has suggested that the 5-HT-like receptors in bivalves are distinct from those of mammalian 5-HT receptors due to pharmacological properties. The present review pays a special attention to future research perspectives to better understand 5-HT regulation of reproduction in bivalves, which can provide us with satisfactory knowledge to elucidate reproductive disorders associated with dysfunctions of the neurotransmitter system

Structure-Function of Serotonin in Bivalve Molluscs

It has been observed that 5-HT excites the heart nerves in hard clam and regulates contraction and relaxation of the anterior byssus retractor muscle in the blue mussel. It is now known that 5-HT regulates several neurobehavioral systems such as mood, appetite, sleep, learning, and memory. It also plays critical roles in the physiological functions of peripheral organs involved in stress, growth, and reproduction in the animal kingdom. The present study reviews conserved 5-HT biosynthesis and its localization in the nervous system, and its physiological contribution to regulate reproduction in bivalves. In the cytosol of neurons, tryptophan hydroxylase catalyzes hydroxylation of l-tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan, which is converted to 5-HT by aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase. A 5-HT transporter and a monoamine oxidase reuptakes and metabolizes 5-HT to control the amount of released 5-HT in the nervous system and peripheral organs. Perikarya and fibers of 5-HT neurons are mostly located in the cortices and neuropil of ganglia, respectively, and innervate the gonad. However, distribution and 5-HT content differ among species and sexes and undergo seasonal variations associated with gonadal development. The present review pays a special attention to future research perspectives to better understand 5-HT regulation of reproduction in bivalves

Physiological functions of osmolality and calcium ions on the initiation of sperm motility and swimming performance in redside dace, Clinostomus elongatus

a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o Reproductive potential of fish stocks is critically dependent on sperm performance in an aquatic environment. The aim of this study is to test hypotheses, which govern the initiation of sperm motility and swimming performance, through physiological functions of osmolality and Ca 2+ ion, in a threatened species of freshwater fish, the redside dace, Clinostomus elongatus. Spermatozoa motility was activated in either ionic or non-ionic media spanning a range of osmolalities

Teachers’ First Language Use in Second Language Learning Classroom Context: A Questionnaire-based Study

Abstract Recently the issue of having recourse to second language (L2) learners’ first language (L1) in second language acquisition (SLA) is receiving a great amount of attention in SLA research. There has been a great deal of claims and counter-claims with respect to L1 use in L2 learning. The findings of L2 research to date cast doubt on the rationales of proponents of exclusive use of L2.  Researchers and practitioners who have observed L2 classrooms have identified different functions of L1 in L2 learning. Drawing on previous research as a framework, the present study investigates teachers’ beliefs and perceptions about L1 use in English-as-a-foreign language (EFL) learning contexts. To this end, seventy-two L2 teachers volunteered to fill in a questionnaire which probed into their beliefs and perceptions about employing learners’ L1 (Persian) in L2 (English) learning. The data obtained revealed that the L2 teachers used L1 mainly to provide feedback, teach new vocabulary, explain grammar, build rapport, manage the class, give individual help to learners, and save time in lengthy task explanations. However, in contrast to the L2 studies to date in this field, the teachers expressed that they never fall back on learners’ L1 to explain instructions for assignments or projects. The findings might have significant implications for language teachers, in particular in EFL contexts, regarding the facilitative effects of L1 use on L2 learning. The pedagogical implications of the study are explained in detail. Key Words: L1 use; EFL, TEFL ResumenRecientemente, hay considerable debate sobre recurrir o no a la primera lengua (L1) de alumnos en el proceso de aprendizaje del segundo lengua (L2), sobretodo en el campo de ‘La Adquisición de una Segunda Lengua (SLA en inglés). Se ha generado un volumen sustancial de argumentos y contra-argumentos con respecto al uso de L1 en el aprendizaje de L2. Los resultados de muchos estudios, hasta la fecha, ponen en duda los fundamentos del uso exclusivo de la L2. Investigadores y profesores han identificado  diferentes funciones del uso del L1 en el aula de L2 y han llegado a la conclusión que el L1 puede apoyar al aprendizaje del L2. Basandose en la investigación previa, el presente estudio investiga las creencias y percepciones de los profesores sobre el uso de L1 en clases de Inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL en inglés). Para ello, setenta y dos profesores de L2 se ofrecieron como voluntarios para contestar un cuestionario que exploró sus creencias y percepciones sobre como emplean sus alumnos el L1 (persa) en en contexto del aprendizaje del L2 (Inglés). Los datos obtenidos revelaron que los maestros del L2 utilizan el L1 principalmente para proporcionar información, enseñar vocabulario nuevo, explicar gramática, construir una buena relación con los alumnos, gestionar la clase, dar ayuda individual a los estudiantes, y ahorrar tiempo en largas explicaciones de tareas. No obstante, en contraste con otros estudios sobre el L2, los maestros indicaron que nunca recurren al L1 de los alumnos para dar las instrucciones para las tareas o proyectos. Los hallazgos podrían tener implicaciones significativas para los profesores de lenguas, en particular en contextos de inglés como lengua extranjera, con respecto a los efectos de facilitación que tiene el L1 en el aprendizaje del L2. Las implicaciones pedagógicas del estudio se explican en detalle. Palabras clave: el uso del L1; Inglés como lengua extranjera, la enseñanza del inglés como lengua extranjeraپژوهشی در مورد استفاده معلمین از زبان اول در محیط های کلاسی یادگیری زبان دوم: مطالعه ای بر پایه پرسشنامه امروزه موضوع  استفاده از  زبان مادری فراگیران در یادگیری زبان دوم توجه بسیاری را در پژوهش فراگیری زبان دوم به خود جلب کرده است.  ادعاها و  مخالفت های بسیاری در ارتباط با استفاده از زبان اول در فراگیری زبان دوم وجود داشته است. یافته های پژوهش های زبان دوم تا به امروز تردیدی هایی را در رابطه با استدلال های طرفداران استفاده انحصاری از زبان دوم ایجاد کرده است. تا به امروز، پژوهشگران کلاس های زبان دوم را نظاره کرده اند و با کاربرد های مختلف زبان اول در یادگیری زبان دوم روبرو شده اند. پژوهش حاضر به بررسی  نظرات و برداشت های معلمین در رابطه با استفاده از زبان اول در محیط های یادگیری انگلیسی به عنوان زبان خارجی می پردازد. برای نیل به این هدف، هفتاد و دو معلم زبان انگلیسی داوطلب شدند تا پرسشنامه ای را که به بررسی نظرات  و برداشت های معلمین در رابطه با استفاده از زبان اول  (فارسی) در محیط های یادگیری زبان دوم (انگلیسی) به عنوان زبان دوم می پرداخت تکمیل نمایند. داده های گردآوری شده نشان داد که معلمین زبان دوم عمدتا از زبان اول برای دادن بازخورد، تدریس واژگان جدید، توضیح دستور زبان، ایجاد تفاهم با زبان آموزان، مدیریت کلاس، کمک کردن به زبان آموزان به صورت مجزا، و صرفه جویی در زمان بهره می برند. علاوه بر این، بر خلاف پژوهش های انجام یافته تا به امروز، معلمین اظهار کردند که آنها هرگز از زبان اول برای توضیح تکالیف درسی و پروژه ها استفاده نمی کنند. یافته های این پژوهش می تواند  حاوی نکات کاربردی مهمی  در رابطه با تاثیرات موثر استفاده از زبان اول در یادگیری زبان دوم برای معلمین زبان مخصوصا در محیط های  یادگیری انگلیسی به عنوان زبان خارجی داشته باشد. مفاهیم آموزشی پژوهش حاضر به تفصیل توضیح داده شده است.

The Impact of Topic Congruence on Second Language Reading Comprehension

The present study scrutinized the impact of congruent topics on the quality of L2 reading comprehension. 56 Iranian advanced-level students read 2 texts on a controversial topic, one on the advantages of child gender selection, and the other on disadvantages. Quality analysis of immediate and delayed recall tasks, defined as the amount of high and low-level information recalled correctly, was performed by analysis of variance. Results revealed that topic congruence affected immediate recall of both high and low-level information, and also delayed recall of low-level information. Findings showed that the effect of congruent topics on reading recall was detrimental; participants recalled less information from the passage with congruent topic than a passage with incongruent topic. Outcomes of the study suggest that controversial topics should be selected more cautiously, because they may not truly reflect L2 readers’ reading comprehension.

Validity of the listening module of international English language testing system: multiple sources of evidence

Abstract Background A critical issue in International English Language Testing System (IELTS) lies in the significance of the validity of IELTS listening comprehension test (hereafter IELTS LCM). However IELTS listening validity has been investigated, it has not been investigated with reference to multiple sources of evidence regarding item internal factors. To bridge this gap, we investigated its construct validity with use of structural equation modelling (SEM) and assessed differential item functioning (DIF) through cognitive diagnostic modelling (CDM) and Mantel Haenszel (MH). Methods In this study, first, the participants signed a consent form for participation in the study; then, 480 participants were administered a proficiency test designed by the university of Cambridge; next, out of 480 participants, 463 participants were administered a 40-item IELTS LCT developed by the University of Cambridge. Finally, the data were analyzed with use of LISREL for probing the construct validity of the test; also, for detecting the potential DIF items, MH and CDM were used to make the results of DIF related findings more reliable. Results The results of the first study confirmed an appropriate model fit, so that all four constructs, i.e., gap filling, diagram labelling, multiple choice and short answer on IELTS LCT, had a statistically significant contribution to IELTS LCT. However, construct-related evidence may not lead to the whole validity. This given, the second study examined the DIF items to argue the validity of IELTS LCT: MH detected 15 DIF items and CDM detected at least 6 DIF items and at most 12 DIF items. Conclusions Due to its international nature and world-wide evaluative contribution, IELTS needs to have approximately (not absolutely) a stable factor structure, so that it should be invariant across populations and various cultures. More naturally, a test highly valid in one context might suffer from some degree of invalidity with some related constructs in another context. This in mind, our perspective in this research is not recommended to be taken as a one-size-fits-all model: Neither generalization nor claim is made based on the present study

Inflammatory cells′ role in acetic acid-induced colitis

Background: Free radicals are the known mechanisms responsible for inducing colitis with two origins: Inflammatory cells and tissues. Only the inflammatory cells can be controlled by corticosteroids. Our aim was to assess the importance of neutrophils as one of the inflammatory cells in inducing colitis and to evaluate the efficacy of corticosteroids in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Materials and Methods: Thirty-six mice were divided into six groups of six mice each. Colitis was induced in three groups by exposing them to acetic acid through enema (group 1), ex vivo (group 3), and enema after immune suppression (group 5). Each group had one control group that was exposed to water injection instead of acetic acid. Tissue samples were evaluated and compared based on macroscopic damages and biochemical and pathological results. Results: Considering neutrophilic infiltration, there were significant differences between groups 1, 3, 5, and the control of group 1. Groups 3, 5, and their controls, and group 1 and the control of group 3 had significant differences in terms of goblet depletion. Based on tissue originated H 2 O 2 , we found significant differences between group 1 and its control and group 3, and also between groups 5 and the control of group 3. All the three groups were significantly different from their controls based on Ferric Reducing Ability of Plasma (FRAP) and such differences were also seen between group 1 with two other groups. Conclusion: Neutrophils may not be the only cause of oxidation process in colitis, and also makes the effectiveness of corticosteroids in the treatment of this disease doubtful

Teachers’ writing proficiency and assessment ability: the missing link in teachers’ written corrective feedback practice in an Iranian EFL context

Abstract Background Teachers’ writing proficiency and writing assessment ability and their role in improving writing instruction in second language learning classrooms are issues that have not been investigated empirically and rigorously. To bridge the gap, we investigated the writing proficiency, writing assessment ability, and written corrective feedback beliefs and practices of Iranian English teachers who gave feedback on learners’ writings. Methods To this end, 103 Iranian teachers who had the experience of writing instruction and assessment in their classrooms completed two writing tasks, assessed and gave feedback on two writing tasks, and responded to a researcher-made questionnaire inspecting their feedback beliefs and practices and research interest. Results The data analysis showed that the teachers’ writing proficiency did not satisfy the expectations and standards. Their writing assessment ability was also not accurate. Moreover, the data obtained from the questionnaire indicated that the teachers mostly gave unfocused direct written corrective feedback; they did not use technology in writing instruction; and most of them did not ask the learners to revise the texts which received feedback. Furthermore, the results showed that a majority of the teachers did not study the research papers because they did not have time and lacked access to the journals. Conclusions As the findings of this study showed, more research is needed to improve the quality of writing instruction in Iranian classroom context. More research seems necessary especially in different contexts to come up with practical suggestions for teachers who give WCF on their students’ writing and assess and grade writing. These are critical issues that merit investigation in future research