Copper homeostasis in chloroplasts : comparative study of two transporters belonging to the PIB- type ATPases family

Le cuivre est un métal de transition essentiel pour le fonctionnement des organismes vivants. Chez la plante Arabidopsis thaliana, la moitié du contenu en cuivre est localisé dans le chloroplaste. Cet organite, spécifique des cellules végétales, est constitué d'une enveloppe délimitant le stroma, un compartiment aqueux au sein duquel se trouve un système membranaire complexe, les thylacoïdes. Dans les chloroplastes d'Arabidopsis, le cuivre est le cofacteur de deux protéines essentielles : la superoxyde dismutase Cu/Zn, impliquée dans la défense contre des espèces réactives de l'oxygène au niveau du stroma et la plastocyanine, une protéine du lumen des thylacoïdes, impliquée dans la chaine de transfert des électrons photosynthétiques. Des études de génétique inverse ont démontré que le transport du cuivre à la plastocyanine impliquait deux protéines membranaires appartenant à la famille des ATPases-PIB-1 : HMA6, localisée dans l'enveloppe et HMA8, localisée dans la membrane des thylacoïdes. Une étude fonctionnelle in vitro a montré que HMA6 était un transporteur de haute affinité de cuivre monovalent présentant les caractéristiques générales des ATPases-P. Afin de comparer les propriétés enzymatiques de ces deux ATPases-PIB-1 et de mieux comprendre leur rôle respectif dans l'homéostasie du cuivre au sein du chloroplaste, nous avons déterminé in vitro les propriétés enzymatiques de HMA8.La stratégie employée pour la caractérisation de HMA8 a été similaire à celle utilisée pour la caractérisation de HMA6. Dans un premier temps, la sélectivité ionique de HMA8 a été évaluée à l'aide de tests phénotypiques dans la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Les propriétés enzymatiques de HMA8 ont ensuite été déterminées in vitro après expression dans la bactérie Lactoccocus lactis, par des expériences de phosphorylation par l'ATP. Cette analyse a permis de démontrer que HMA8 présentait une plus forte affinité apparente pour le cuivre mais une activité catalytique plus lente que HMA6. L'analyse de modèles tridimensionnels de HMA6 et HMA8 a montré que ces différences pourraient être expliquées par des différences de charges au niveau de la cavité où le métal est libéré et/ou par la nature des partenaires interagissant avec ces ATPases. Ces différences pourraient expliquer les fonctions distinctes de ces deux transporteurs dans le chloroplaste : HMA6 régulerait la concentration en cuivre dans le stroma en interagissant avec différentes protéines cibles (notamment des chaperonnes à cuivre), alors que HMA8 aurait un rôle plus précis pour la distribution du cuivre à la plastocyanine.Pour mieux comprendre le mécanisme de libération du cuivre par HMA6 et HMA8, nous avons effectué une étude fonctionnelle de mutants de la région reliant les deux premières hélices transmembranaires (TMA et TMB). Dans cette étude, nous avons ciblé les cystéines et histidines qui de par leurs propriétés chimiques sont les résidus les plus à même d'interagir avec le métal. Les mutants d'intérêts ont été sélectionnés par criblage phénotypique dans la levure puis exprimés dans la bactérie L. lactis. La caractérisation biochimique in vitro de leurs propriétés enzymatiques a été réalisée par des tests de phosphorylation par l'ATP et le Pi. Cette étude nous a permis d'identifier deux résidus, une cystéine et une histidine, impliqués la libération du cuivre et de proposer un modèle de cheminement du métal dans la partie extracytoplasmique du site de transport de HMA6Copper is an essential transition metal for living organisms. In the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, half the copper content is localized in the chloroplast. This organelle specific of plant cells, consists of an envelope delimiting the stroma, an aqueous compartment within which there is a complex membrane system, the thylakoids. In chloroplasts of Arabidopsis, copper is the cofactor of two essential proteins: the superoxide dismutase Cu / Zn, involved in defense against reactive oxygen species in the stroma and plastocyanin, a protein of the thylakoid lumen involved in the chain transfer photosynthetic electron. Reverse genetics studies have demonstrated that copper transport in plastocyanin involved two membrane proteins belonging to the family of ATPases-PIB-1: HMA6, located in the envelope and HMA8, localized in the thylakoid membranes. A functional in vitro study showed that HMA6 was a monovalent high affinity copper transporter showing the general characteristics of P-ATPases. To compare the enzymatic properties of these two ATPases and better understand their respective role in copper homeostasis in the chloroplast, we in vitro determined the enzymatic properties of HMA8.The strategy employed for the characterization of HMA8 was similar to that used for the characterization of HMA6. Initially, the ion selectivity of HMA8 was evaluated using phenotypic tests in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The enzymatic properties of HMA8 were then determined in vitro after expression in the bacterium Lactoccocus lactis, by phosphorylation experiments by ATP. This analysis demonstrated that HMA8 had a stronger apparent affinity for copper but a slower catalytic activity than HMA6. The analysis of three-dimensional models of HMA6 and HMA8 showed that these differences could be explained by differences in the electrostatic potential at the cavity where the metal is released and/or by the nature of the partners interacting with these ATPases. These differences might explain the distinct functions of the two carriers in the chloroplast: HMA6 would regulate the copper concentration in the stroma by interacting with various target proteins (including copper chaperone), while HMA8 would have a more specific role for the distribution of copper plastocyanin.To better understand the mechanism of copper release by HMA6 and HMA8, we conducted a functional study of mutants of the region connecting the first two transmembrane helices (TMA and TMB). In this study, we specifically targeted cysteines and histidines because of their chemical properties that make them very strong metal ligands. The mutants of interest were selected by phenotypic screening in yeast and then expressed in the bacterium L. lactis. The in vitro biochemical characterization of their enzymatic properties was carried out by phosphorylation tests by ATP and Pi. This study allowed us to identify two residues, one cysteine and one histidine, involved the release of copper and to propose a metal path model in extracytoplasmic part of the transport site of HMA

Ions channels/transporters and chloroplast regulation.

International audienceIons play fundamental roles in all living cells and their gradients are often essential to fuel transports, to regulate enzyme activities and to transduce energy within and between cells. Their homeostasis is therefore an essential component of the cell metabolism. Ions must be imported from the extracellular matrix to their final subcellular compartments. Among them, the chloroplast is a particularly interesting example because there, ions not only modulate enzyme activities, but also mediate ATP synthesis and actively participate in the building of the photosynthetic structures by promoting membrane-membrane interaction. In this review, we first provide a comprehensive view of the different machineries involved in ion trafficking and homeostasis in the chloroplast, and then discuss peculiar functions exerted by ions in the frame of photochemical conversion of absorbed light energy

Structural Insights into the Nucleotide-Binding Domains of the P1B-type ATPases HMA6 and HMA8 from Arabidopsis thaliana

International audienceCopper is a crucial ion in cells, but needs to be closely controlled due to its toxic potential and ability to catalyse the formation of radicals. In chloroplasts, an important step for the proper functioning of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain is the delivery of copper to plastocyanin in the thylakoid lumen. The main route for copper transport to the thylakoid lumen is driven by two PIB-type ATPases, Heavy Metal ATPase 6 (HMA6) and HMA8, located in the inner membrane of the chloroplast envelope and in the thylakoid membrane, respectively. Here, the crystal structures of the nucleotide binding domain of HMA6 and HMA8 from Arabidopsis thaliana are reported at 1.5Å and 1.75Å resolution, respectively, providing the first structural information on plants Cu+-ATPases. The structures reveal a compact domain, with two short helices on both sides of a twisted beta-sheet. A double mutant, aiding in the crystallization, provides a new crystal contact, but also avoids an internal clash highlighting the benefits of construct modifications. Finally, the histidine in the HP motif of the isolated domains, unable to bind ATP, shows a side chain conformation distinct from nucleotide bound structures

HMA1 and PAA1, two chloroplast envelope PIB-ATPases, play distinct roles in chloroplast copper homeostasis

International audienceCopper is an essential micronutrient but it is also potentially toxic as copper ions can catalyse the production of free radicals, which result in various types of cell damage. Therefore, copper homeostasis in plant and animal cells must be tightly controlled. In the chloroplast, copper import is mediated by a chloroplast-envelope PIB-type ATPase, HMA6/PAA1. Copper may also be imported by HMA1, another chloroplast-envelope PIB-ATPase. To get more insights into the specific functional roles of HMA1 and PAA1 in copper homeostasis, this study analysed the phenotypes of plants affected in the expression of both HMA1 and PAA1 ATPases, as well as of plants overexpressing HMA1 in a paa1 mutant background. The results presented here provide new evidence associating HMA1 with copper homeostasis in the chloroplast. These data suggest that HMA1 and PAA1 behave as distinct pathways for copper import and targeting to the chloroplast. Finally, this work also provides evidence for an alternative route for copper import into the chloroplast mediated by an as-yet unidentified transporter that is neither HMA1 nor PAA

Identification of Two Conserved Residues Involved in Copper Release from Chloroplast PIB-1-ATPases.

International audienceCopper is an essential transition metal for living organisms. In the plant model Arabidopsis thaliana, half of the copper content is localized in the chloroplast and, as a cofactor of plastocyanin, copper is essential for photosynthesis. Within the chloroplast, copper delivery to plastocyanin involves two transporters of the PIB-1-ATPases subfamily, HMA6 at the chloroplast envelope and HMA8, in the thylakoid membranes. Both proteins are high affinity copper transporters but share distinct enzymatic properties. In the present work, the comparison of 140 sequences of PIB-1-ATPases revealed a conserved region unusually rich in histidine and cysteine residues in the TMA-L1 region of eukaryotic chloroplast copper ATPases. To evaluate the role of these residues, we mutated them in HMA6 and HMA8. Mutants of interest were selected from phenotypic tests in yeast and produced in Lactococcus lactis for further biochemical characterizations using phosphorylation assays from ATP and Pi. Combining functional and structural data, we highlight the importance of the cysteine and the first histidine of the Cx3Hx2H motif in the process of copper release from HMA6 and HMA8, and propose a copper pathway through the membrane domain of these transporters. Finally our work suggests a more general role of the histidine residue in the transport of copper by PIB-1-ATPases

ALA10, a phospholipid flippase, controls FAD2/FAD3 desaturation of phosphatidylcholine in the ER, and affects chloroplast lipid composition in Arabidopsis thaliana.

International audienc

Effect of the double alanine mutant in HMA6^N.

<p>Interface of helix 4 from chain A and the symmetry related chain A* with glutamate modelled at position 709 and 710, matching the WT sequence instead of the two alanine, as found in the structure. Helix 4 is shown in orange in the symmetry related side chain marked with an asterisk.</p

HMA6 and HMA8 are two chloroplast Cu+-ATPases with different enzymatic properties.

The final version of record is available at http://www.bioscirep.org/content/35/3/e00201International audienceCopper (Cu) plays a key role in the photosynthetic process as cofactor of the plastocyanin (PC), an essential component of the chloroplast photosynthetic electron transfer chain. Encoded by the nuclear genome, PC is translocated in its apo-form into the chloroplast and the lumen of thylakoids where it is processed to its mature form and acquires Cu. In Arabidopsis, Cu delivery into the thylakoids involves two transporters of the PIB-1 ATPases family, heavy metal associated protein 6 (HMA6) located at the chloroplast envelope and HMA8 at the thylakoid membrane. To gain further insight into the way Cu is delivered to PC, we analysed the enzymatic properties of HMA8 and compared them with HMA6 ones using in vitro phosphorylation assays and phenotypic tests in yeast. These experiments reveal that HMA6 and HMA8 display different enzymatic properties: HMA8 has a higher apparent affinity for Cu+ but a slower dephosphorylation kinetics than HMA6. Modelling experiments suggest that these differences could be explained by the electrostatic properties of the Cu+ releasing cavities of the two transporters and/or by the different nature of their cognate Cu+ acceptors (metallochaperone/PC)

Data collection and refinement statistics of HMA6^N-AA.

<p>Data collection and refinement statistics of HMA6^N-AA.</p

A matrix of RMSD values (in Å) among the N-domains of structural homologs of HMA6^N and HMA8^N compared in Fig 3 using the CA positions.

<p>A matrix of RMSD values (in Å) among the N-domains of structural homologs of HMA6^N and HMA8^N compared in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0165666#pone.0165666.g003" target="_blank">Fig 3</a> using the CA positions.</p