Protocol for Studying Embryonic Mammary Gland Branching Morphogenesis Ex Vivo

Mammary gland development starts during embryogenesis, and the process continues after birth. During development, the mammary gland undergoes massive morphological and physiological alterations including growth, invasion, and branching morphogenesis providing an ideal model for stem cell and cancer biology studies. Great efforts have been made in understanding mammary gland development during puberty and adulthood; however, the process during embryogenesis is still elusive. One reason is that the tools to study tissue dynamics during development are limited, which is partially due to the lack of an ex vivo culture method. Here we describe an updated organ culture protocol of the murine embryonic mammary gland. This powerful tool allows monitoring of growth and branching morphogenesis of mammary gland ex vivo by live imaging. In addition, we introduce a novel method for culturing intact, stroma-free mammary rudiments from late gestation mouse embryos in 3D in Matrigel. This approach can be used to identify the direct stromal cues for branching morphogenesis.Non peer reviewe

Two Distinct Integrin-Mediated Mechanisms Contribute to Apical Lumen Formation in Epithelial Cells

Background: Formation of apical compartments underlies the morphogenesis of most epithelial organs during development. The extracellular matrix (ECM), particularly the basement membrane (BM), plays an important role in orienting the apico-basal polarity and thereby the positioning of apical lumens. Integrins have been recognized as essential mediators of matrix-derived polarity signals. The importance of b1-integrins in epithelial polarization is well established but the significance of the accompanying a-subunits have not been analyzed in detail. Principal Findings: Here we demonstrate that two distinct integrin-dependent pathways regulate formation of apical lumens to ensure robust apical membrane biogenesis under different microenvironmental conditions; 1) a2b1- and a6b4integrins were required to establish a basal cue that depends on Rac1-activity and guides apico-basal cell polarization. 2) a3b1-integrins were implicated in positioning of mitotic spindles in cysts, a process that is essential for Cdc42-driven epithelial hollowing. Significance: Identification of the separate processes driven by particular integrin receptors clarifies the functional hierarchies between the different integrins co-expressed in epithelial cells and provides valuable insight into the complexity of cell-ECM interactions thereby guiding future studies addressing the molecular basis of epithelial morphogenesis durin

Specific roles of epithelial integrins in chemical and physical sensing of the extracellular matrix to regulate cell shape and polarity

Abstract Integrins are a large family of αβ-heterodimeric cell adhesion receptors of which the cell type specific expression defines the extracellular matrix (ECM) binding properties of different adherent cell types. In addition to various growth factors and their receptors, epithelial morphogenesis is also executed by dynamic changes in the chemical composition and physical properties of the ECM that controls the shape and behavior of the associated cells via integrin mediated adhesion and signalling. Epithelial cell polarity and contractility are central mechanisms of epithelial shape determination and are established upon spatially, mechanically and chemically sensitive integrin signals of the microenvironment. The functional hierarchy between different integrin heterodimers and their ECM ligands in organizing these tasks has not been systematically addressed. In order to study the relative roles of different integrins, we set up a loss-of-function screen of co-expressed integrin subunits in the Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) epithelial cell line. By analyzing MDCK cystogenesis in three-dimensional (3D) ECMs, we were able to establish a model of how epithelial polarity is organized: cell adhesion either by α2β1- or α6β4-integrins defines the orientation of cell polarity and coordinated functions of α2β1- and α3β1-integrins mediate the establishment of epithelial lumens via cavitation and hollowing, respectively. By analyzing the spreading of MDCK cells, we established that epithelial cell contractility is based on synergistic functions of β1-integrins that mediate cell adhesion and αV-integrins that facilitate ECM rigidity sensing. We also discovered that the hemidesmosomal integrin α6 and integrin β4 did not require heterodimerization to be transported to the plasma membrane (PM) and that integrin β4 may support laminin assembly to the basement membrane (BM) independently of integrin α6.Tiivistelmä Integriinit ovat suuri molekyyliperhe αβ-heterodimeerisiä adheesioreseptoreja. Integriinit ilmentyvät eri tavoin eri solutyypeissä, ja tämä säätelee sitä, miten solut tarttuvat ja reagoivat erilaisiin soluväliaineisiin. Tällä tavalla integriinit ja soluväliaine osallistuvat myös epiteelimorfogeneesiin lukuisten kasvutekijöiden ja niiden reseptoreiden lisäksi. Epiteelimorfogeneesissä etenkin solujen polarisaatio ja solujen supistuminen ovat tärkeitä tapahtumia, joiden ohjaukseen integriinit ja soluväliaine osallistuvat. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli selvittää eri integriinien ja niiden soluväliaineligandien toiminnallista hierarkiaa epiteelimorfogeneesissä, etenkin solujen polarisaatiossa ja supistumisessa. Integriinien keskinäisten roolien selvittämiseksi hiljensimme ilmentyvät integriinialayksiköt yksitellen munuaisen epiteelisolulinjasta RNA-häirinnän avulla. Mallina epiteelimorfogeneesille käytimme hyväksi munuaisepiteelisolujen kykyä muodostaa rakkularakenteita kolmiulotteisessa soluväliaineessa viljeltyinä. Näitä rakenteita analysoimalla pystyimme muodostamaan mallin siitä, miten polarisoitunut epiteelirakenne organisoituu: α2β1- tai α6β4-integriinien välittämä adheesio tarvitaan solujen polariteetin orientoimiseen ja α2β1- ja α3β1-integriinien yhteistoiminta tarvitaan epiteelisen rakkulan tyhjän sisäosan muodostumiseen, joko apoptoosin tai polarisoituneen kalvokuljetuksen kautta. Tutkimalla solujen levittäytymistä jäykälle kaksiulotteiselle alustalle pystyimme määrittämään, että epiteelisolun supistuminen pohjautuu β1-integriinien välittämän adheesion ja αV-integriinien välittämän väliaineen jäykkyyttä aistivien signaalien yhteistoimintaan. Havaitsimme myös, että hemidesmosomaalisten integriinien α6 ja β4 sekretioon ei tarvittu näiden keskinäistä heterodimerisaatiota ja integriini β4:llä saattaa olla integriini α6:sta riippumaton rooli laminiinin kokoamisessa tyvikalvoon

Spatially coordinated cell cycle activity and motility govern bifurcation of mammary branches

Branching morphogenesis is an evolutionary solution to maximize epithelial function in a compact organ. It involves successive rounds of branch elongation and branch point formation to generate a tubular network. In all organs, branch points can form by tip splitting, but it is unclear how tip cells coordinate elongation and branching. Here, we addressed these questions in the embryonic mammary gland. Live imaging revealed that tips advance by directional cell migration and elongation relies upon differential cell motility that feeds a retrograde flow of lagging cells into the trailing duct, supported by tip proliferation. Tip bifurcation involved localized repression of cell cycle and cell motility at the branch point. Cells in the nascent daughter tips remained proliferative but changed their direction to elongate new branches. We also report the fundamental importance of epithelial cell contractility for mammary branching morphogenesis. The co-localization of cell motility, non-muscle myosin II, and ERK activities at the tip front suggests coordination/cooperation between these functions.This study shows that mammary gland branching morphogenesis is orchestrated by spatiotemporally coordinated changes in tip cell motility and proliferation to alternate between branch elongation and branch point formation.Peer reviewe

Cell surface expression of integrin β4-subunit in the absence of α6-subunit

Abstract Laminin-rich basement membrane (BM) guides epithelial cell polarity, regulates epithelial cell behavior and maintains the integrity of epithelial tissues. αβ1- and α6β4-integrins both contribute to laminin adhesion and signaling via the assembly of integrin adhesion complexes that help to orient the apico-basal polarity axis. β4-integrin differs from other integrin subunits due to its large cytoplasmic domain that connects to cellular intermediate filament (IF) networks in specialized adhesions called hemidesmosomes (HD). β4-integrin is only known to form a heterodimer with the α6-subunit. In normal tissues, β4-integrin is expressed in cells that also express the α6-subunit. However, in most cells analyzed, β4-integrin is expressed in large excess over α6-integrin and in some tumor cells, β4-integrin appears to promote tumorigenic signaling despite loss of HDs formation. The fate of free β4-subunit and its potential functions in cells have not been extensively studied. Here, we have studied subcellular localization and potential surface delivery of β4-integrin in the absence of its heterodimer partner α6. We provide evidence that a significant fraction of β4-subunit can reach the cell surface without α6-subunit. We also report that β4 is cleaved at its extracellular domain to produce a membrane-bound proteolytic product with an intact cytoplasmic domain. The processed β4-integrin did not co-precipitate with α6-subunit. Taken together, our data suggest that β4-integrin might have functions that are independent of heterodimer formation

Hair follicle dermal condensation forms via Fgf20 primed cell cycle exit, cell motility, and aggregation

Mesenchymal condensation is a critical step in organogenesis, yet the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain poorly understood. The hair follicle dermal condensate is the precursor to the permanent mesenchymal unit of the hair follicle, the dermal papilla, which regulates hair cycling throughout life and bears hair inductive potential. Dermal condensate morphogenesis depends on epithelial Fibroblast Growth Factor 20 (Fgf20). Here, we combine mouse models with 3D and 4D microscopy to demonstrate that dermal condensates form de novo and via directional migration. We identify cell cycle exit and cell shape changes as early hallmarks of dermal condensate morphogenesis and find that Fgf20 primes these cellular behaviors and enhances cell motility and condensation. RNAseq profiling of immediate Fgf20 targets revealed induction of a subset of dermal condensate marker genes. Collectively, these data indicate that dermal condensation occurs via directed cell movement and that Fgf20 orchestrates the early cellular and molecular events.Peer reviewe

Proximity-dependent biotinylation (BioID) of integrin interaction partners

Abstract Integrins are heterodimeric adhesion receptors that maintain cell–extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions in diverse tissue microenvironments. They mediate cell adhesion and signaling through the assembly of large cytoplasmic multiprotein complexes that focally connect with the cytoskeleton. Integrin adhesion complexes (IAC) are specialized by the type of integrin-ECM contact and are sensitive to mechanical forces. Thus, they encrypt context-dependent information about the microenvironment in their composition. Signals mediated through IACs modulate many aspects of cell behavior, which allows cells to adapt to their surroundings. To gain insights into their function, IACs have been isolated from cultured cells and explored by proteomics. IACs are insoluble by nature and held together by transient/weak interactions, which makes it challenging to isolate intact IACs. Usually all IACs coupled to a specified ECM, which may employ different integrins, are isolated. Here we describe an alternative method based on proximity-dependent biotin identification (BioID), where specific integrin interaction partners are labeled in live cells and isolated without the need to isolate intact IACs

DataSheet1_Scribble and α-Catenin cooperatively regulate epithelial homeostasis and growth.PDF

Epithelial homeostasis is an emergent property of both physical and biochemical signals emanating from neighboring cells and across tissue. A recent study reveals that Scribble, an apico-basal polarity determinant, cooperates with α-Catenin, an adherens junction component, to regulate tissue homeostasis in the Drosophila wing imaginal disc. However, it remains to be addressed whether similar mechanisms are utilized in vertebrates. In this study, we first address how α-Catenin cooperates with Scribble to regulate epithelial homeostasis and growth in mammalian cells. Our data show that α-Catenin and Scribble interact physically in mammalian cells. We then found that both α-Catenin and Scribble are required for regulating nuclear translocation of YAP, an effector of the Hippo signaling pathway. Furthermore, ectopic Scribble suffices to suppress YAP in an α-Catenin-dependent manner. Then, to test our hypothesis that Scribble amounts impact epithelial growth, we use the Drosophila wing imaginal disc. We show that Scribble expression is complementary to Yorkie signal, the Drosophila ortholog of YAP. Ectopic expression of full-length Scribble or Scribble Leucine Rich Region (LRR):α-Catenin chimera sufficiently down-regulates Yorkie signal, leading to smaller wing size. Moreover, Scribble LRR:α-Catenin chimera rescues scribble mutant clones in the wing imaginal disc to maintain tissue homeostasis. Taken together, our studies suggest that the association of cell polarity component Scribble with α-Catenin plays a conserved role in epithelial homeostasis and growth.</p

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