Effect of farming system changes on life cycle assessment indicators for dairy farms in the Italian Alps.

In some Alpine areas dairy farming is going through a process of intensification with significant changes in farming systems. The aim of this study was to investigate environmental performance of a sample of 31 dairy farms in an Alpine area of Lombardy with different levels of intensification. A cradle to farm gate life cycle assessment was performed including the following impact categories: land use, non-renewable energy use, climate change, acidification and eutrophication. From a cluster analysis it resulted that the group of farms with lowest environmental impacts were characterized by low stocking density and production intensity; farms that combined good environmental performances with medium gross margins were characterized also by high feed self-sufficiency and lowland availability. Environmental impacts of dairy farms in the mountain areas could be mitigated by the improvement of forage production and quality and by the practice of summer highland grazing, that significantly reduced eutrophication per kg of milk of the less self-sufficient farms

Curves of growth in heifers and farm effects

La misurazione dell\u2019altezza al garrese e della circonferenza toracica, effettuata in 60 aziende della provincia di Brescia su 2862 manze tra i 5 e i 31 mesi di vita, ha permesso di calcolare una regressione lineare tra il peso corporeo (derivato dalla circonferenza toracica) e l\u2019et\ue0 delle manze secondo l\u2019equazione: peso (kg) = 70,71 + 20,16 et\ue0 (mesi) (n=2862; r2=0,83; DSR=49,9). L\u2019incremento ponderale giornaliero \ue8 risultato mediamente di 0,67 kg/d. L\u2019altezza al garrese \ue8 risultata pi\uf9 elevata nelle manze nate in estate/autunno rispetto a quelle nate in inverno/primavera. Sono state evidenziate relazioni tra il peso corporeo delle manze, la razione somministrata e le condizioni igieniche

Environmental impact of the typical heavy pig production in Italy

The Italian pig sector is mainly focused on the production of heavy pigs used for the traditional dry-cured hams. At slaughter a minimum of 160 kg and 9 months age are required to comply with the production specifications of the ham consortia. Advancing livestock age and increasing fat deposition negatively affect feed conversion ratio, which is one of the main determinants of meat production environmental impact. The aim of the study was to provide a first evaluation of the environmental impact potentials of heavy pig production in Italy through a Life Cycle Assessment approach. Additional objectives were to identify the main hot spots and the most important data gaps in the analysis. A cradle to farm gate Life Cycle Assessment was performed in 6 intensive pig farms located in Northern Italy. Key parameters concerning on-farm activities, inputs and outputs were collected through personal interviews with farmers. The functional unit was 1 kg live weight. Direct land use change was considered in the emissions of imported soybean. The average pig slaughter live weight was 168.7 \ub1 33.3 kg. Environmental impacts per kg live weight were generally higher than those generated in the production of pigs slaughtered at lower weight. The global warming potential was on average 4.25 \ub1 1.03 kg CO2 eq/kg live weight. Feed chain (crop production at farm and purchased feed) was the major source of impact for all the categories and the most important hotspot of heavy pig production. Farm size and reproductive efficiency appeared important factors in the environmental burden of heavy pig production: the largest and most efficient farm (as live weight produced per sow) had impact potentials per kg live weight much lower than those generated in the less efficient farm and similar to the ones reported on pigs slaughtered at a lower weight. The wide range of impact values within farms reveals opportunities for environmental improvements in the production of the traditional heavy pig. There is a need for further data and models on methane enteric emissions and nitrogen excretions above 100 kg of live weight

Milking procedures and milk ejection in Italian Brown cows

The aim of the study was to describe, on the basis of field data, the traits of milk flow curves of Italian Brown cows and to investigate some sources of variation. A total of 1,450 milk flow curves of the whole udder were collected in 81 Italian Brown dairy herds in Lombardy, Italy, using electronic mobile milk flow meters. Parity order and days in milk affected most milk flow traits. Milk flow curves showed some defects dependent on milking management practices: very long machine-on time, long duration of overmilking phase, high percentage of stripping and moderate percentage of bimodality

Effect of season and cow cleanliness on teat apex score and milk somatic cell count

Teat end tissue could change after repeated milkings, resulting in the development of a callous ring around the teat orifice. Factors affecting teat hyperkeratosis include: teat end shape, production level, stage of lactation, lactation number, milking management (especially slow milking and over-milking). Also harsh weather conditions or sudden weather changes can affect the level of teat hyperkeratosis. Somatic cells count in milk is an indicator of udder safety and is influenced by stage and number of lactation, milking procedure, hygiene condition of cubicles and udder, seasonal variations. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of season and cow cleanliness on teat end condition and somatic cell count (SCC). A sample of 16 dairy farms (80 cows on average) were visited during winter, summer and intermediate seasons (autumn or spring) at evening milking. Hygiene score (Schreiner and Ruegg, 2003) and teat score (Mein et al., 2001) were assessed for each milking cows. Individual SCC and milk quality were obtained from AIA database. Records were Linear Score (LS) per cell count, average Udder hygiene Score (US) and average Teat Score (TS). Two classes of observations were defined on US basis: 642 or >2 score. All data (2161 observations) were analyzed using analysis of variance (proc GLM, SAS). LS showed very low values but with high variability (2.9\ub11.7 on average); TS was very good (1.8\ub10.62). Season had a significant effect (P < 0.001) on milk quality (fat and protein) with higher values during winter in comparison with other season; unexpected no effect was obtained on LS. Season also affected TS with higher value during intermediate seasons. US was significantly higher (P<0.05) during winter in comparison with other seasons. TS were significantly lower (P<0.02) in the first class (based on US) compared to the second one. The study confirmed the great effect of season on milk quality and teat conditions and showed that udder cleanliness had a positive consequence on teat apex condition

Milk ejection during automatic milking in dairy cows

Tactile stimulation (manual or mechanical) of the mammary gland causes alveolar milk ejection through a neuro-endocrine reflex arc (Dzidic et al., 2004). Oxytocin is the hormone that induces the contraction of the myoepitelial cells surrounding the alveoli

Milking procedures, milk flow curves and somatic cell count in dairy cows

Recent availability of electronic mobile milk flow meters allows to study in details milk flow patterns during milking. A normal milk flow profile is characterized by an incline phase, with increasing milk flow, a plateau phase, with steady milk flow, and a decline phase. In these phases milk flow is influenced by many factors: genetic characteristics of the cows, regulation of milking machine and milking routine

How can farming intensification affect the environmental impact of milk production? 

The intensification process of the livestock sector has been characterized in recent decades by increasing output of product per hectare, increasing stocking rate, including more concentrated feed in the diet, and improving the genetic merit of the breeds. In dairy farming, the effects of intensification on the environmental impact of milk production are not completely clarified. The aim of the current study was to assess the environmental impacts of dairy production by a life cycle approach and to identify relations between farming intensity and environmental performances expressed on milk and land units. A group of 28 dairy farms located in northern Italy was involved in the study; data collected during personal interviews of farmers were analyzed to estimate emissions (global warming potential, acidification, and eutrophication potentials) and nonrenewable source consumption (energy and land use). The environmental impacts of milk production obtained from the life cycle assessment were similar to those of other recent studies and showed high variability among the farms. From a cluster analysis, 3 groups of farms were identified, characterized by different levels of production intensity. Clusters of farms showed similar environmental performances on product basis, despite important differences in terms of intensification level, management, and structural characteristics. Our study pointed out that, from a product perspective, the most environmentally friendly way to produce milk is not clearly identifiable. However, the principal component analysis showed that some characteristics related to farming intensification, such as milk production per cow, dairy efficiency, and stocking density, were negatively related to the impacts per kilogram of product, suggesting a role of these factors in the mitigation strategy of environmental burden of milk production on a global scale. Considering the environmental burden on a local perspective, the impacts per hectare were positively associated with the intensification level

Environmental impact of milk production in intensive farming systems: life cycle assessment approach

Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been shown to be a valuable method for the environmental evaluation of farming systems and has been applied to several agricultural products, particularly in Europe. In LCA the potential environmental impacts of a product are assessed by quantifying the resources consumed and the emissions, at all stages of its life cycle, from the extraction of resources, through the production and transport of materials, to the production process at the farm. The aim of the study was to evaluate the environmental impacts of milk production in intensive farming systems using LCA approach on a sample of 44 dairy farms in northern Italy. Impact categories were: Land use, Non-renewable energy use, Climate change, Acidification and Eutrophication. Functional units were: 1 kg of Fat and Protein Corrected Milk (FPCM); 1 ha of farm land. Data were collected by personal interview with the farmers. Farms involved in the study reared on average 145 (\ub191) cows, with a daily milk production of 28.0 (\ub13.32) kg FPCM/cow. Average farm land was 49.9 (\ub137) ha and stocking density 5.3 (\ub12.5) LU/ha. On average, 59% of the total dry matter of cow rations consisted of feed ingredients produced on the farm. The average results for the 5 LCA categories per kg of FPCM were: 2.84 (\ub11.02) m2 for Land use, 4.98 (\ub11.34) MJ for Energy use, 0.93 (\ub10.29) kg CO2-eq for Climate change, 18.2 (\ub14.2) g SO2-eq for Acidification and 12.0 (\ub13.1) g PO4-eq for Eutrophication. Impact indicators from this study are similar to those reported in recent European LC analyses on intensive dairy farms, although the comparison among LCA studies from different countries can be misleading because of local peculiarities and different methodologies. Within the study, LCA indicators allowed to compare environmental impacts of milk production among farms characterized by different levels of intensification (stocking density, milk production, feed self-supply)

Effect of maize, rumen-protected fat and whey permeate on energy utilisation and milk fat composition in lactating goats

The efficiency of utilisation of diets with different proportions of energy sources (starch, fat, lactose) was studied with three pairs of lactating Saanen goats; the animals were fed, in a Latin square design, 3 silage-based diets containing (on DM basis) the following energy sources: 32% maize meal (diet M); 4.7% rumen-protected fat (Megalac®) and 23.5% maize meal (diet F); 9.8% milk whey permeate powder and 22.3% maize meal (diet W). During each of the three experimental periods, 8 days of total collection balance trials were conducted during which goats were allocated for 72 h (three 24 h cycles) in open circuit respiration chambers to determine methane and heat production and, hence, the energy balance. Diet F, in comparison with diets M and W, significantly increased the milk fat content (4.13 vs 3.11 and 3.14%, P<0.001) and the 4%-FCM yield (3367 vs 2927 and 3055 g/d, P<0.01 and P<0.05, respectively), while no relevant changes were observed for milk protein content and yield. Energy digestibility was equal in diets F and W. Megalac® did not decrease fibre digestibility. The partition of the gross energy intake (EI) differed significantly between diets: diet M had lower DE (72.4 vs 74.3 and 74.3%; P<0.01) and ME (62.1 vs 64.7 and 63.5%; P<0.05) in comparison with diets F and W, respectively. Energy lost as methane was not significantly decreased by the inclusion of rumen- protected fat in the diet, although a trend for a reduction of methanogenesis was observed. Heat production deter- mined by treatment F was lower in comparison with the other treatments. This difference was almost significant (P=0.056) when expressed as a percentage of the ME. Milk energy output increased significantly (+12%, P<0.001) by including fat in the diet, as compared with treatments M and W: 21.4 vs 19.1 and 19.0% of the EI. The net ener- gy content of the protected fat was 27.94 MJ NEl/kg DM (+340% vs maize meal); its kl value resulted 0.77. The corresponding values for whey permeate were 7.76 MJ NEl/kg DM (-5% vs maize meal) and 0.50, respectively. Summarizing, the efficiency of energy utilization in diet M was significantly lower in comparison with the other two diets in terms of digestibility and metabolisability, while its NEl content was similar to that of diet W. On the other hand, diet F had a significantly higher ME (P<0.01) and NEl (P<0.05) as compared to the other two diets. Diet F greatly influenced the fatty acid composition of the milk fat with less short (-30%) and medium (-33%) chain fatty acids and more (+18%) long chain fatty acids. In conclusion, whey permeate and even more Megalac® can be suc- cessfully used as feed ingredients in the diet of highly productive lactating goats, but the economical convenience of their utilisation must be evaluated based on the market values of feedstuffs