Training und Coaching von weiblichen vs. männlichen Athleten auf ihrem Weg zu Gold? Einschätzungen erfolgreicher Trainer von Eliteathleten

This scientific short report investigated how successful male coaches perceive gender differences in training characteristics and coaching practice among medal-winning endurance athletes. Ten male Norwegian coaches with a track record of coaching both female and male endurance world-class athletes (total of 269 Olympic, World and European Championship medals) participated in semi-structured interviews. Inductive thematic analysis revealed that all coaches mainly adjusted their key training and coaching principles to the individual athlete, rather than gender. A coach-driven and athlete-centered individualization process was essential to create trust, mutual understanding, and optimal training content. Potential gender/sex differences were perceived in four main themes: sport-specific competition demands, physiological, psychological and interpersonal factors (e.g., gender of the coach). In this context, all coaches described how training and coaching of female athletes differs from that of men, thus considering male athletes as the reference group and male physiology and psychology as the norm. Furthermore, societal factors such as a male-dominant sports culture and underlying gender stereotypes were suggested as amplifiers of gender differences. Accordingly, our report highlights the need for female perspectives in elite sports and invites further in-depth investigations of the identified gender/sex differences within the respective disciplines of training science, physiology, psychology and sociology.publishedVersio

Training und Coaching von weiblichen vs. männlichen Athleten auf ihrem Weg zu Gold? Einschätzungen erfolgreicher Trainer von Eliteathleten

This scientific short report investigated how successful male coaches perceive gender differences in training characteristics and coaching practice among medal-winning endurance athletes. Ten male Norwegian coaches with a track record of coaching both female and male endurance world-class athletes (total of 269 Olympic, World and European Championship medals) participated in semi-structured interviews. Inductive thematic analysis revealed that all coaches mainly adjusted their key training and coaching principles to the individual athlete, rather than gender. A coach-driven and athlete-centered individualization process was essential to create trust, mutual understanding, and optimal training content. Potential gender/sex differences were perceived in four main themes: sport-specific competition demands, physiological, psychological and interpersonal factors (e.g., gender of the coach). In this context, all coaches described how training and coaching of female athletes differs from that of men, thus considering male athletes as the reference group and male physiology and psychology as the norm. Furthermore, societal factors such as a male-dominant sports culture and underlying gender stereotypes were suggested as amplifiers of gender differences. Accordingly, our report highlights the need for female perspectives in elite sports and invites further in-depth investigations of the identified gender/sex differences within the respective disciplines of training science, physiology, psychology and sociology

The Training Characteristics of World-Class Male Long-Distance Cross-Country Skiers

Purpose: To investigate the training characteristics of world-class long-distance cross-country skiers. Methods: Twelve world-class male long-distance cross-country skiing specialists reported training from their best season, through a questionnaire and follow-up interviews. Training data were systemized by training form (endurance, strength, and speed), intensity [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and exercise mode, followed by a division into different periodization phases. Specific sessions utilized in the various periodization phases were also analyzed. Results: The annual training volume was 861 ± 90 h, consisting of 795 ± 88 h (92%) of endurance training, 53 ± 17 h (6%) of strength training, and 13 ± 14 h (2%) of speed training. A pyramidal (asymptotic) endurance training distribution was employed (i.e., 88.7% LIT, 6.4% MIT, and 4.8% HIT). Out of this, 50–60% of the endurance training was performed with double poling (DP), typically in the form of a daily 3- to 5-h session. A relatively evenly distributed week-to-week periodization of training load was commonly used in the general preparation period, whereas skiers varied between high-load training weeks and competition weeks, with half the training volume and a reduced amount of DP during the competition period. Conclusions: To match the specific demands of long-distance cross-country skiing, specialized long-distance skiers perform relatively long but few training sessions and use a pyramidal intensity distribution pattern and a large amount of training spent using the DP technique

How do the effects of an 8-week intervention influence subsequent performance development in cross-country skiers?

Author's accepted version (postprint).This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Human Kinetics in International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance (IJSPP) on 7/2/22.Available online: doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2021-0356Purpose: To investigate how the effects of increased low- vs. high-intensity endurance training in an 8-week intervention influenced the subsequent development of performance and physiological indices in cross-country skiers. Methods: Forty-four (32 men and 14 women) junior cross-country skiers were randomly assigned into a low- (LITG, n=20) or high-intensity training group (HITG, n=24) for an 8-week intervention followed by 5 weeks of standardized training with similar intensity distribution, and thereafter 14 weeks of self-chosen training. Performance and physiological indices in running and roller-ski skating were determined pre-intervention, after the intervention (POST-1), and after the standardized training period (POST-2). Roller-ski skating was also tested after the period of self-chosen training. Results: No between-group changes from pre-intervention to POST-2 were found in peak speed when incremental running and roller-ski skating (P=0.83 and 0.51), although performance in both modes was improved in LITG (2.4% [4.6%] and 3.3% [3.3%], P<0.05) and in roller-ski skating for HITG (2.6% [3.1%], P<0.01). While improvements in VO2max running and VO2peak roller-ski skating were greater in HITG than LITG from pre-intervention to POST-1, no between-group differences were found from pre-intervention to POST-2 (P=0.50 and 0.46), although VO2peak roller-ski-skating significantly improved within HITG (5.7% [7.0%], P<0.01). No changes neither within nor between groups were found after the period of self-chosen training. Conclusions: Differences in adaptations elicited by a short-term intervention focusing on low- vs. high-intensity endurance training had little or no effects on the subsequent development of performance or physiological indices following a period of standardized training in cross-country skiers.acceptedVersio

Effects of increased load of low- versus high-intensity endurance training on performance and physiological adaptations in endurance athletes

Author's accepted version (postprint).This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Human Kinetics in International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance on 05/10/2021.Available online: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/17/2/article-p216.xml?content=abstractacceptedVersio

The return from underperformance to sustainable world-class level: A case study of a male cross-country skier

Purpose: To determine the main factors associated with unexpected underperformance and prospectively describe the holistic process of returning to sustainable world-class level in a male cross-country skier. Methods: Longitudinal training data was retrospectively analyzed across nine seasons (2012-2013 to 2020-2021), and categorized into training forms (endurance, strength, and speed), intensities [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and modes (specific and non-specific). Performance data was obtained from the International Ski and Snowboard Federation. Following two seasons of unexpected underperformance (2019-2020 and 2020-2021), the participant was prospectively followed in the process of returning to sustainable world-class level (2021-2022). Day-to-day training data and physiological tests were analyzed, and interviews with the participant and the head coach conducted. Results: Longitudinal training data from 2012-2013 to 2018-2019 demonstrated a non-linear 30% increase in total training volume (from 772 to 1,002 h), mainly caused by increased volume of ski-specific endurance training without changes in intensity distribution. Coincidingly, the participant gradually reached a world-class performance level. After two seasons of unexpected underperformance with relatively similar training volumes and intensity distributions as in the preceding seasons, the possible contributing factors were identified: lack of training periodization, limited monitoring and intensity control, particularly in connection with a “extreme” regime of training with low carbohydrate availability and days including two MIT sessions, as well as lack of systematic technique training and follow-up by coaches on a daily basis. Consequently, the return to world-class level included the introduction of a clear micro-cycle periodization, more systematic physiological monitoring and testing, more accurate intensity control, increased carbohydrate intake during and between sessions, as well as increased emphasize on technique training and an assistant coach present during day-to-day training. Conclusion: These longitudinal data describe the main factors leading to unexpected underperformance, in addition to providing unique insights into the corresponding process of returning to sustainable world-class level in a male crosscountry skier. The holistic approach described in this case study may serve as a theoretical framework for future studies and practical work with underperforming endurance athletes

The return from underperformance to sustainable world-class level : A case study of a male cross-country skier

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Long-Term Development of Training Characteristics and Performance-Determining Factors in Elite/International and World-Class Endurance Athletes: A Scoping Review

Objective - In this scoping review, we aimed to 1) identify and evaluate existing research that describes the long-term development of training characteristics and performance-determining factors in male and female endurance athletes reaching an elite/international (Tier 4) or world-class level (Tier 5), 2) summarize the available evidence and 3) point out existing knowledge gaps and provide methodological guidelines for future research in this field. Methods - This review was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for scoping reviews. Results - Out of 16772 screened items across a 22-year period (1990-2022), a total of 17 peer-reviewed journal articles met the inclusion criteria and were considered for further analysis. These 17 studies described athletes from seven different sports and seven different countries, with 11 (69%) of the studies being published during the last decade. Of the 109 athletes included in this scoping review, one quarter were women (27%), and three quarters were men (73%). Ten studies included information about the long-term development of training volume and training intensity distribution. A non-linear, year-to-year increase in training volume was found for most athletes, resulting in a subsequent plateau. Furthermore, 11 studies described the development of performance determining factors. Here, most of the studies showed improvements in submaximal variables (e.g., lactate/anaerobic threshold and work economy/efficiency) and maximal performance-indices (e.g., peak speed/watt during performance testing). Conversely, the development of VO2max was inconsistent across studies. No evidence was found regarding possible sex differences in development of training or performance-determining factors among endurance athletes. Conclusion - Overall, a low number of studies describing the long-term development of training and performance-determining factors is available. This suggests that existing talent development practices in endurance sports are built upon limited scientific evidence. Overall, there is an urgent need for additional long-term studies based on systematic monitoring of athletes from a young age utilizing high-precision, reproducible measurements of training and performance-determining factors

From juniors to seniors: changes in training characteristics and aerobic power in 17 world-class cross-country skiers

Purpose: To compare training characteristics and aerobic power (VO2max) between the most successful junior and senior seasons of world-class cross-country (XC) skiers and to identify differences between sexes and among sprint and distance skiers. Methods: Retrospective analysis was conducted on self-reported training and VO2max tests of ten male and seven female world-class XC-skiers, collectively holding 38 Olympic medals. Training was categorized by form (endurance, strength, speed, other) and mode (specific, unspecific) and was divided into low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT). Results: Total training increased by 203 ± 130 h (35% ± 31%, p < .001, large effect) and 78 ± 69 sessions (21% ± 24%, p < .001, very large effect). Junior training volume (658 ± 107 h) did not correlate with senior volume (861 ± 74 h) but correlated negatively with changes in volume (r = −.822, p < .001). No sex differences were observed related to total volume, but distance skiers increased their total volume more than sprint skiers (p = .037, large effect). Endurance training increased by 197 ± 117 h (p < .001; large effect) tied to increased low-intensity training (186 ± 115 h, p < .001; large effect) and moderate-intensity training (13 ± 7 h, p < .001; large effect). Training intensity distribution (% LIT/MIT/HIT) was 91/3/6 in junior and 92/4/4 in senior season. Women demonstrated greater increase of unspecific modes (100 ± 58 vs. 37 ± 44 h, p = .022; large effect) and strength training (25 ± 23 vs. −3 ± 17 h, p = .010, large effect). Men improved absolute (8% ± 5%; p = .009; large effect) and relative VO2max (6% ± 4%; p = .016; large effect) from junior to senior, while women only increased relative VO2max (7% ± 5%, p = .012; large effect). Conclusion: This study provides novel information regarding changes in training characteristics and aerobic power from junior to senior age in world-class XC-skiers. Overall, the enhanced training volume during this transition was primarily driven by increased LIT and MIT and the exceptionally high relative VO2max at junior age further increased in both sexes.publishedVersio

“Mission impossible”? How a successful female cross-country skier managed a dual career as a professional athlete and medical student : A case study

The aim of the present case study is to illuminate the factors contributing to the initiation, maintenance and discontinuation of the dual career of a Norwegian world-class athlete and medicine student. We additionally aimed to highlight contextual factors facilitating and impeding the dual career development. The participant Astrid Uhrenholdt Jacobsen was a Norwegian student-athlete in the 2005–2020 period when she concurrently achieved 10 FIS World Championship medals, one Olympic medal, and 43 World Cup podiums in cross-country ski- ing. Day-to-day training diary data, study load and progress, performance, and interviews were analysed. In most years, the participant’s annual training vol- ume was c. 800–900 hrs/year. No significant differences in athletic performance were seen between the years with full-time studies, part-time studies, and study breaks. The participant Jacobsen experienced conflicting schedules and a lack of dual career support from stakeholders as the major challenges. Hence, the present single-case study provides unique data on the process and management of a dual career.publishedVersio