Low-temperature crystallisation of Heusler alloy films with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy

We demonstrate that perpendicular anisotropy can be induced in Co2FeAl0.5Si0.5 by depositing the Heusler alloy on a tungsten seed layer. This is increased by elevating the deposition temperature to a moderate value up to 335 K. These perpendicular layers can be implemented into GMR devices, showing layer-thickness dependent switching without the use of an antiferromagnetic pinning-layer. These layers can be implemented into the manufacturing process of read-heads, where temperatures are limited

Current-induced crystallisation in Heusler alloy films for memory potentiation in neuromorphic computation

The current information technology has been developed based on von Neumann type computation. In order to sustain the rate of development, it is essential to investigate alternative technologies. In a next-generation computation, an important feature is memory potentiation, which has been overlooked to date. In this study, potentiation functionality is demonstrated in a giant magnetoresistive (GMR) junction consisting of a half-metallic Heusler alloy which can be a candidate of an artificial synapse while still achieving a low resistance-area product for low power consumption. Here the Heusler alloy films are grown on a (110) surface to promote layer-by-layer growth to reduce their crystallisation energy, which is comparable with Joule heating induced by a controlled current introduction. The current-induced crystallisation leads to the reduction in the corresponding resistivity, which acts as memory potentiation for an artificial GMR synaptic junction

Heusler alloys for spintronic devices: review on recent development and future perspectives

Heusler alloys are theoretically predicted to become half-metals at room temperature (RT). The advantages of using these alloys are good lattice matching with major substrates, high Curie temperature above RT and intermetallic controllability for spin density of states at the Fermi energy level. The alloys are categorised into half- and full-Heusler alloys depending upon the crystalline structures, each being discussed both experimentally and theoretically in Section 2. Fundamental properties of ferromagnetic Heusler alloys are described in Section 3. Both structural and magnetic characterisations on an atomic scale are typically carried out in order to prove the half-metallicity at RT as described in Section 4. Atomic ordering in the Heusler-alloy films is directly observed by X-ray diffraction and is also indirectly probed via the temperature dependence of electrical resistivity. Element specific magnetic moments and spin polarisation of the Heusler alloy films are directly measured using X-ray magnetic circular dichroism and Andreev reflection, respectively. By employing these ferromagnetic alloy films in a spintronic device, efficient spin injection into a non-magnetic material and large magnetoresistance are discussed in Section 5. Fundamental properties of antiferromagnetic Heusler alloys are described in Section 6. Both structural and magnetic characterisations on an atomic scale are shown in Section 7. Atomic ordering in the Heusler-alloy films is indirectly measured by the temperature dependence of electrical resistivity. Antiferromagnetic configurations are directly imaged by X-ray magnetic linear dichroism and polarised neutron reflection. Section 8 explains applications of the antiferromagnetic Heusler-alloy films. The other non-magnetic Heusler alloys are listed in Section 9. A brief summary is provided at the end of this review

Development of Antiferromagnetic Heusler Alloys for the Replacement of Iridium as a Critically Raw Material

As a platinum group metal, iridium (Ir) is the scarcest element on the earth but it has been widely used as an antiferromagnetic layer in magnetic recording, crucibles and spark plugs due to its high melting point. In magnetic recording, antiferromagnetic layers have been used to pin its neighbouring ferromagnetic layer in a spin-valve read head in a hard disk drive for example. Recently, antiferromagnetic layers have also been found to induce a spin-polarised electrical current. In these devices, the most commonly used antiferromagnet is an Ir-Mn alloy because of its corrosion resistance and the reliable magnetic pinning of adjacent ferromagnetic layers. It is therefore crucial to explore new antiferromagnetic materials without critical raw materials. In this review, recent research on new antiferromagnetic Heusler compounds and their exchange interactions along the plane normal is discussed. These new antiferromagnets are characterised by very sensitive magnetic and electrical measurement techniques recently developed to determine their characteristic temperatures together with atomic structural analysis. Mn-based alloys are found to be most promising based on their robustness against atomic disordering and large pinning strength up to 1.4 kOe, which is comparable with that for Ir-Mn. The search for new antiferromagnetic films and their characterisation are useful for further miniaturisation and development of spintronic devices in a sustainable manner

Herstellung und Charakterisierung von CPP-GMR und Spin-Transfer-Drehmoment induzierten magnetisches Schalten

Even though the unique magnetic behavior for ferromagnets has been known for thousands of years, explaining this interesting phenomenon only occurred in the 20th century. It was in 1920, with the discovery of electron spin, that a clear explanation of how ferromagnets achieve their unique magnetic properties came to light. The electron carries an intrinsic electric charge and intrinsic angular momentum. Use of this property in a device was achieved in 1998 when Fert and Gru¨nberg independently found that the resistance of FM/NM/FM trilayer depended on the angle between the magnetization of the two layers. This phenomena which is called giant magnetoresistance (GMR) brought spin transfer into mainstream. This new discovery created a brand new research fi called “spintronics” or “spin based electronics” which exploits the intrinsic spin of electron. As expected spintronics delivered a new generation of magnetic devices which are currently used in magnetic disk drives and magnetic random access memories (MRAM). The potential advantages of spintronics devices are non-volatility, higher speed, increased data density and low power consumption. GMR devices are already used in industry as magnetic memories and read heads. The quality of GMR devices can be increased by developing new magnetic materials and also by going down to nanoscale. The desired characteristic properties of these new materials are higher spin polarization, higher curie temperature and better spin filtering. Half-metals are a good candidate for these devices since they are expected to have high polarization. Some examples of half-metals are Half-Heusler alloy, full Heusler alloy and Perovskite or double Perovskite oxides. The devices discussed in this thesis have NiMnSb half-Heusler alloy and permalloy as the ferromagnetic layers separated by Cu as the nonmagnetic layer. This dissertation includes mainly two parts, fabrication and characterization of nan- opillars. The layer stack used for the fabrication is Ru/Py/Cu/NiMnSb which is grown on an InP substrate with an (In,Ga)As buff by molecule beam epitaxy (MBE). A new method of fabrication using metal mask which has a higher yield of working samples over the previous method (using the resist mask) used in our group is discussed in detail. Also, the advantages of this new method and draw backs of the old method are explained thoroughly (in chapter 3). The second part (chapters 4 and 5) is focused on electrical measurements and charac- terization of the nanopillar, specially with regard to GMR and spin-transfer torque (STT) measurements. In chapter 4, the results of current perpendicular the plane giant mag- netoresistance (CPP-GMR) measurements at various temperatures and in-plane magnetic fi are presented. The dependence of CPP-GMR on bias current and shape anisotropy of the device are investigated. Results of these measurements show that the device has strong shape anisotropy. The following chapter deals with spin-transfer torque induced magnetic switching measurements done on the device. Critical current densities are on the order of 106 A/cm2, which is one order of magnitude smaller than the current industry standards. Our results show that the two possible magnetic configurations of the nanopillar (parallel and anti-parallel) have a strong dependence on the applied in-plane magnetic fi Fi- nally, four magnetic fi regimes based on the stability of the magnetic configuration (P stable, AP stable, both P and AP stable, both P and AP unstable) are identified.Obwohl das einzigartige ferromagnetische Verhalten seit Tausenden Jahren bekannt ist, traten Erklärungen zu diesem interessanten Phänomen erst im 20. Jahrhundert auf. Erst im Jahr 1920, mit der Entdeckung des Elekronenspin, gab es eine Vorstellung davon, wie die Ferromagnetika ihre einzigartigen magnetischen Eigenschaften erhalten. Die Elektronen sind sowohl Träger einer intrinsischen Ladung als auch eines intrinsichen Drehimpulses. Die Nutzung dieser Eigenschaften in Bauteilen wurde 1998 erreicht, als Fert und Grünberg unabhängig voneinander die Entdeckung machten, dass der Widerstand eines Dreischichtsystems bestehend aus FM/NM/FM abha¨ngig vom Winkel der Magnetisierung in den zwei ferromagnetischen Schichten ist. Dieses Phänomen, welches als Riesenmagnetwiderstand (GMR, Giant Magnetoresistance) bekannt ist, führte dazu, dass sich der Spintransport zu einem Mainstream entwickelte. Diese neuartige Entdeckung brachte ein ganz neues Forschungsgebiet hervor, das als sogenannte Spintronik oder auch spinbasierte Elektronik bekannt ist, welche den intrinsischen Spin der Elektronen nutzt. Wie erwartet lieferte die Spintronik eine neue Generation von magnetischen Bauelementen, welche in Festplatten und magnetoresistiven RAM-Speichern (MRAM, magnetic random access memory) zu fi sind. Die großen Vorteile der spintronischen Bauelemente sind die Nichtvolalität, die höheren Geschwindigkeiten, die verbesserte Datendichte und der geringerer Energieverbrauch. GMR-Bauteile werden bereits in der Industrie als magnetische Speicher und Leseköpfe verwendet. Die Qualität der GMR-Bauteile kann durch die Entwicklung von neuen magnetischen Materialien aber auch durch Verkleinerung, also Nutzung der Nanoskala verbessert wer- den. Zu den gewünschten charakteristischen Eigenschaften dieser neuen Materialien zählen eine höhere Spinpolarisation, höher erreichbare Curie-Temperaturen und eine verbesserte Spinfi tion. Halbmetalle, wie z.B., Heusler-Legierungen, Perovskite oder auch doppeloxide sind hierfür gute Kandidaten, weil von ihnen eine hohe Polarisierbarkeit erwartet wird. Die Bauteile, die in dieser Arbeit diskutiert werden, bestehen aus einer NiMnSb-Heusler-Legierung und Permalloy als ferromagnetische Schichten getrennt durch Cu als nichtmagnetische Schicht. Die Dissertation beinhaltet hauptsächlich zwei Aspekte nämlich die Herstellung und Charakterisierung von Nanosäulen. Die benutzte Schichtung zur Herstellung ist Ru/Py/Cu /NiMnSb, welche mittels MBE (molecular beam epitaxy) auf einem InP-Substrat mit einem (In,Ga)As-Puff gewachsen ist. Eine neue Herstellungsmethode, welche Metallmasken gegenüber der früher in unserer Arbeitsgruppe gängigen Methode (Verwendung von Resistmasken) nutzt, um eine erhöhte Probenfunktionalität zu erreichen, wird im Detail diskutiert. Ebenso werden die Vorteile dieser neuen Methode und das Detail der alten Methode vollständig in Kapitel 3 erläutert. Im Fokus des zweiten Teils (Kapitel 4 und 5) stehen elektrische Messungen und Charakterisierung der Nanos¨aulen im Hinblick auf den GMR und den Spintransfer-Moment-Messungen (SST). In Kapitel 4 werden die Ergebnisse der Strommessungen, die senkrecht zur GMR-Ebene (CPP-GMR) bei verschiedenen Temperaturen und eines in der Ebene angelegten Magnetfeldes durchgeführt wurden vorgestellt zudem wird die Abhängigkeit des CPP-GMR von Bias-Strömen und von der Formanisotropy der Bauteile untersucht. Ergebnisse dieser Messungen zeigen, dass die Bauteile eine groe Formanisotropy aufweisen. In den darauffolgenden Kapiteln werden Spintransfer-Moment Messungen, die durch magnetisches Schalten in den Bauteilen hervorgerufen wurden besprochen. Kritische Stromdichten liegen in der Größenordnung 106 A/cm2, welche eine Größenordnung kleiner ist als der aktuelle Industriestandard. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen eine starke Abhängigkeit der zwei magnetischen Konfigurationsmöglichkeiten der Nanosäulen (parallel und anti- parallel) von dem in-plane Magnetfeld. Schließlich wurden vier magnetische Feldbereiche, basierend auf der Stabilität der magnetischen Konfiguration (P stabil, AP stabil, P und AP stabil, P und AP instabil) identifiziert

Fabrication and Characterization of CPP-GMR and Spin-Transfer Torque Induced Magnetic Switching

Even though the unique magnetic behavior for ferromagnets has been known for thousands of years, explaining this interesting phenomenon only occurred in the 20th century. It was in 1920, with the discovery of electron spin, that a clear explanation of how ferromagnets achieve their unique magnetic properties came to light. The electron carries an intrinsic electric charge and intrinsic angular momentum. Use of this property in a device was achieved in 1998 when Fert and Gru¨nberg independently found that the resistance of FM/NM/FM trilayer depended on the angle between the magnetization of the two layers. This phenomena which is called giant magnetoresistance (GMR) brought spin transfer into mainstream. This new discovery created a brand new research fi called “spintronics” or “spin based electronics” which exploits the intrinsic spin of electron. As expected spintronics delivered a new generation of magnetic devices which are currently used in magnetic disk drives and magnetic random access memories (MRAM). The potential advantages of spintronics devices are non-volatility, higher speed, increased data density and low power consumption. GMR devices are already used in industry as magnetic memories and read heads. The quality of GMR devices can be increased by developing new magnetic materials and also by going down to nanoscale. The desired characteristic properties of these new materials are higher spin polarization, higher curie temperature and better spin filtering. Half-metals are a good candidate for these devices since they are expected to have high polarization. Some examples of half-metals are Half-Heusler alloy, full Heusler alloy and Perovskite or double Perovskite oxides. The devices discussed in this thesis have NiMnSb half-Heusler alloy and permalloy as the ferromagnetic layers separated by Cu as the nonmagnetic layer. This dissertation includes mainly two parts, fabrication and characterization of nan- opillars. The layer stack used for the fabrication is Ru/Py/Cu/NiMnSb which is grown on an InP substrate with an (In,Ga)As buff by molecule beam epitaxy (MBE). A new method of fabrication using metal mask which has a higher yield of working samples over the previous method (using the resist mask) used in our group is discussed in detail. Also, the advantages of this new method and draw backs of the old method are explained thoroughly (in chapter 3). The second part (chapters 4 and 5) is focused on electrical measurements and charac- terization of the nanopillar, specially with regard to GMR and spin-transfer torque (STT) measurements. In chapter 4, the results of current perpendicular the plane giant mag- netoresistance (CPP-GMR) measurements at various temperatures and in-plane magnetic fi are presented. The dependence of CPP-GMR on bias current and shape anisotropy of the device are investigated. Results of these measurements show that the device has strong shape anisotropy. The following chapter deals with spin-transfer torque induced magnetic switching measurements done on the device. Critical current densities are on the order of 106 A/cm2, which is one order of magnitude smaller than the current industry standards. Our results show that the two possible magnetic configurations of the nanopillar (parallel and anti-parallel) have a strong dependence on the applied in-plane magnetic fi Fi- nally, four magnetic fi regimes based on the stability of the magnetic configuration (P stable, AP stable, both P and AP stable, both P and AP unstable) are identified

Perpendicular Anisotropy Controlled by Seed and Capping Layers of Heusler-Alloy Films

Half-metallic Heusler alloys typically have in-plane magnetic anisotropy, which can be converted to perpendicular by attaching MgO or heavy metal, e.g., Pt, layers as similarly applied for conventional ferromagnets. Recently we have found body-centered cubic (bcc) seed layers, e.g., V and W, to induce perpendicular anisotropy in Heusler-alloy films above, however, they show small giant magnetoresistance (GMR) ratios in spin-valve structures to date. This is partially because of the large resistivity of the seed layer and the nonmagnetic layer in the spin-valve. In this study, we have systematically investigated nonmagnetic overlayers and have found that a Ag layer best maintains the perpendicular anisotropy. The corresponding GMR devices have then been fabricated and characterized, achieving the GMR ratio of  0.03% at room temperature. Such bcc seed layers can offer an alternative method for perpendicularlymagnetizedGMRjunctions for applications

Perpendicular Magnetic Anisotropy in Heusler Alloy Films and Their Magnetoresistive Junctions

For the sustainable development of spintronic devices, a half-metallic ferromagnetic film needs to be developed as a spin source with exhibiting 100% spin polarisation at its Fermi level at room temperature. One of the most promising candidates for such a film is a Heusler-alloy film, which has already been proven to achieve the half-metallicity in the bulk region of the film. The Heusler alloys have predominantly cubic crystalline structures with small magnetocrystalline anisotropy. In order to use these alloys in perpendicularly magnetised devices, which are advantageous over in-plane devices due to their scalability, lattice distortion is required by introducing atomic substitution and interfacial lattice mismatch. In this review, recent development in perpendicularly-magnetised Heusler-alloy films is overviewed and their magnetoresistive junctions are discussed. Especially, focus is given to binary Heusler alloys by replacing the second element in the ternary Heusler alloys with the third one, e.g., MnGa and MnGe, and to interfacially-induced anisotropy by attaching oxides and metals with different lattice constants to the Heusler alloys. These alloys can improve the performance of spintronic devices with higher recording capacity

Development of antiferromagnetic Heusler alloys for the replacement of iridium as a critically raw material

As a platinum group metal, iridium (Ir) is the scarcest element on the earth but it has been widely used as an antiferromagnetic layer in magnetic recording, crucibles and spark plugs due to its high melting point. In magnetic recording, antiferromagnetic layers have been used to pin its neighbouring ferromagnetic layer in a spin-valve read head in a hard disk drive for example. Recently, antiferromagnetic layers have also been found to induce a spin-polarised electrical current. In these devices, the most commonly used antiferromagnet is an Ir–Mn alloy because of its corrosion resistance and the reliable magnetic pinning of adjacent ferromagnetic layers. It is therefore crucial to explore new antiferromagnetic materials without critical raw materials. In this review, recent research on new antiferromagnetic Heusler alloys and their exchange interactions along the plane normal is discussed. These new antiferromagnets are characterised by very sensitive magnetic and electrical measurement techniques recently developed to determine their characteristic temperatures together with atomic structural analysis. Mn-based alloys and compounds are found to be most promising based on their robustness against atomic disordering and large pinning strength up to 1.4 kOe, which is comparable with that for Ir–Mn. The search for new antiferromagnetic films and their characterisation are useful for further miniaturisation and development of spintronic devices in a sustainable manner.publishe

Development of an optically gated Fe/n-GaAs spin-polarized transistor

Efficient modulation of electrically injected spin signals that is suitable for modern-day transistor functionality is yet to be established. In this work, we demonstrate in detail the fabrication of a Fe/n-GaAs spin injection device and the experimental setup for an optical gating of the nonlocal spin transport signal. In situ scanning electron microscopy interface imaging reveals more uniform current distribution at the Fe/n-GaAs injector interface at bias voltages higher than the Schottky barrier height. Three- and four-terminal Hanle measurements confirm successful spin injection into n-GaAs, with strong interfacial spin dephasing at high magnetic fields. A time-resolved pump-probe Kerr rotation setup was used to illuminate circularly polarized light in the region of the pure spin current in Fe/n-GaAs lateral spin injection devices, where (0.4±0.3)% modulation of the nonlocal signal depending on the light helicity was observed at 30K