Understanding and improving pacing strategies during standard distance triathlons in age group athletes

Pacing is an integral aspect of performance during all exercise, including multi-sport events such as triathlon. However, to date, the optimal pacing strategies to adopt over an entire triathlon, as well as during each specific discipline (i.e. swim, cycle and run), is not well understood. Therefore, the primary purpose of this thesis was to identify and understand current pacing strategies adopted by highly performing triathletes across different triathlon distances. This research aids in identifying pacing strategies that may improve overall performance during triathlon. In the first study, the influence of sex and race distance on the age-related declines in the sprint, Olympic, half-Ironman (HIM) and Ironman distance triathlons were examined. An earlier, larger and faster rate of decline (p=0.01) in performance with ageing was observed in females (≥30 years, 9.3%, 3.0% per decade respectively) and males (≥40 years, 5.9%, 2.2% per decade, respectively) for the longer events (half-Ironman and Ironman) compared with the shorter distances (sprint and Olympic, ≥50 years for both sexes). A larger magnitude of decline was observed in the swim discipline, as compared with the cycle and run disciplines (12.8%, 5.6%, 9.3% for females, 9.4%, 3.7%, 7.3% for males, in the swim, cycle and run disciplines, respectively). These results indicate that sex and race distance influence the agerelated decline in triathlon performance and should be considered when manipulating training programs to attenuate the age-related declines in performance across different disciplines and distances. Furthermore, a greater emphasis should be placed on maintaining swim performance due to the rapid age-related decline observed in this discipline. The second study within this thesis examined the influence of age and sex on cycle and run pacing during the sprint, Olympic, half-Ironman and Ironman distance triathlons in top performing triathletes. Interestingly, females employed a more aggressive pacing strategy during the initial stages of the cycle discipline across all distances (sprint - 2.1%; Olympic - 1.6%; half-Ironman- 1.5%; Ironman - 1.7% higher relative to mean, as compared with males). Likewise, younger athletes (20-29 y) tend to start the run more aggressively during the sprint, Olympic and half-Ironman events (2.0 to 3.0% faster on average than other agegroups, p Eight well-trained male triathletes performed a sprint, Olympic and half-Ironman triathlon race, each separated by three weeks. Prior to the races, participants performed a cycle to exhaustion test to determine maximal aerobic power, V ˙ O2peak and the power outputs corresponding to the first and second ventilatory thresholds,. A power meter (SRM) was fitted onto their bikes to determine power output and speed during the cycle discipline, while a global positioning system (GPS) was worn throughout the race to determine speed and heart rate throughout. The variability in power output during the cycle discipline was analysed using exposure variation analysis. Results showed that swim pacing was comparable across distances. Cycle pacing was similar during the sprint and Olympic cycle discipline (more even when compared with the half-Ironman). During the run, comparable pacing was observed during the Olympic and half Ironman (more positive when compared with the sprint). Power output during the cycle discipline of the half-Ironman was more variable (standard deviation of exposure variation analysis: EVASD=3.21 ± 0.61) than the sprint cycle discipline (EVASD=3.84 ± 0.44). The results of this study indicate that well-trained triathletes pace differently during triathlons of various distances. Athletes may need to trial different pacing strategies based on race distance, fitness, discipline-specific strengths and race conditions in order to determine their individual optimal pacing strategies. The aim of the final study within this thesis was to determine the influence of pacing during the swim on subsequent sprint triathlon performance. Nine well-trained triathletes performed three sprint triathlons with different swim pacing strategies. The swim of the sprint triathlons were work matched but pacing was manipulated to be either positive (i.e. speed gradually decreasing from 92 to 73% of an initial swim time-trial), negative (i.e. speed gradually increasing from 73 to 92% of the swim time-trial) or even (constant speed of 82.5% of the swim time-trial). Subsequent cycling and running were completed at a self-selected pace. When compared with the even (31.4 ± 1.0 and 67.7 ± 3.9 min respectively) and negatively paced swim (31.8 ± 1.6 and 67.3 ± 3.7 min respectively), faster cycle and overall triathlon times were achieved with a positively paced swim (30.5 ± 1.8 and 65.9 ± 4.0 min respectively). A lower RPE was observed following the positively paced swim time-trial (9 ± 2) when compared with the negatively pacing swim (11 ± 2). No performance differences occurred during the run discipline between trials. This indicates that a more conservative swim start strategy may improve sprint triathlon performance in age-group athletes. The aim of this series of studies was to examine the pacing of top non-drafting age-group triathletes across various standard triathlon distances, in order to understand and improve pacing strategies. The series of four studies in this thesis research project has demonstrated the influence of biological sex, age and distance on performance and pacing during various standard triathlons. The results of this study are of significance to athletes, coaches and sport scientists, as the different pacing strategies adopted in males and females across various age-groups and triathlon distances can have implications for training and racing. Further, a more conservative positive swim pacing strategy could benefit sprint triathlon performance

Validity, reliability, and usefulness of jump performance from a low-cost contact mat

The purpose of this study was to establish the validity, reliability, and usefulness of a low-cost contact mat equipment (CM) with a force plate (FP) as the reference. Eleven female (18.6 ± 3.67 yrs.) and male (18.2 ± 2.71 yrs.) basketball athletes performed hands-on-waist countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) trials. Flight time (FT) and jump height (JH) in CMJ and SJ were subjected for analysis. Relative error expressed as percentage (%RE) was utilized to examine criterion validity between CM and FP. Concurrent validity was also established using Pearson moment correlation (r). Absolute reliability was determined using coefficient of variation (%CV). Relative reliability was identified using intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). Usefulness was established by comparing typical error (TE) vs. smallest worthwhile change (SWC). Results revealed that CMJ and SJ from a low-cost CM can be used as an alternative tool in assessment of jump performance

Factors influencing pacing in triathlon

Triathlon is a multisport event consisting of sequential swim, cycle, and run disciplines performed over a variety of distances. This complex and unique sport requires athletes to appropriately distribute their speed or energy expenditure (ie, pacing) within each discipline as well as over the entire event. As with most physical activity, the regulation of pacing in triathlon may be influenced by a multitude of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The majority of current research focuses mainly on the Olympic distance, whilst much less literature is available on other triathlon distances such as the sprint, half-Ironman, and Ironman distances. Furthermore, little is understood regarding the specific physiological, environmental, and interdisciplinary effects on pacing. Therefore, this article discusses the pacing strategies observed in triathlon across different distances, and elucidates the possible factors influencing pacing within the three specific disciplines of a triathlon

Influence of race distance and biological sex on age-related declines in triathlon performance. Part A

This study examined the effect of biological sex and race distance on the age-related declines in swimming, cycling, running and overall performances of the sprint, Olympic, Half-Ironman and Ironman triathlons. Individual discipline and overall performance time of the top 20% non-elite males (n=468) and females (n=146) were compared by categorizing into four 10-year age-groups (20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50+ years) and normalising to the mean performance time of the fastest age-group for each race. An earlier, larger and faster rate of decline (p=0.01) in performance with ageing was observed in females (≥30 years, 9.3%, 3.0% per decade respectively) and males (≥40 years, 5.9%, 2.2% per decade, respectively) for the longer events (half-Ironman and Ironman) compared with the shorter distances (sprint and Olympic, ≥50 years for both sexes). A greater magnitude of decline was observed in swimming for both sexes, especially in the longer events, when compared with cycling and running (12.8%, 5.6%, 9.3% for females, 9.4%, 3.7%, 7.3% for males, in the swim, cycle and run disciplines, respectively). These results indicate that both race distance and biological sex influence the age-related decline in triathlon performance and could aid athletes in optimising training programs to attenuate the age-related declines in performance across different disciplines and distances. Specifically, older athletes may benefit from greater emphasis on swim training and factors that may influence performance during longer distance triathlons

Influence of age and sex on pacing during sprint, Olympic, half-Ironman and Ironman triathlons. Part B

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of biological sex and age on the pacing strategies adopted by non-drafting top triathletes during the cycle and run disciplines of a Sprint, Olympic, half-Ironman and Ironman triathlon. Split times of the top 20% non-elite males (n=468) and females (n=146) were determined using official race transponders and a video capture system for pre-determined sections of the cycle and run disciplines of four triathlon distances. Indices of pacing were calculated to compare between sexes and age-groups. Results of this study indicated that different pacing strategies were adopted between athletes of different age and sex over the various triathlon disciplines and distances. Females were more aggressive during the initial stages of the cycling discipline across all distances (sprint - 2.1% p=0.024; Olympic - 1.6%, p=0.011; half-Ironman- 1.5%, p\u3c0.001; Ironman - 1.7%, p\u3c0.001 higher relative to mean) compare with males. Younger athletes (20-29 y) tend to begin the run faster (2.0 to 3.0% faster than other age-groups, p\u3c0.029) during the sprint, Olympic and half-Ironman triathlons. These results indicate that different pacing strategies are adopted by non-drafting top athletes of different age and sex. Optimal pacing strategies may differ between sex and ages; therefore individuals may need to trial different strategies to develop their own optimal pacing profile for triathlon events of varying distances

Pan-Cancer Analysis of lncRNA Regulation Supports Their Targeting of Cancer Genes in Each Tumor Context

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are commonly dys-regulated in tumors, but only a handful are known toplay pathophysiological roles in cancer. We inferredlncRNAs that dysregulate cancer pathways, onco-genes, and tumor suppressors (cancer genes) bymodeling their effects on the activity of transcriptionfactors, RNA-binding proteins, and microRNAs in5,185 TCGA tumors and 1,019 ENCODE assays.Our predictions included hundreds of candidateonco- and tumor-suppressor lncRNAs (cancerlncRNAs) whose somatic alterations account for thedysregulation of dozens of cancer genes and path-ways in each of 14 tumor contexts. To demonstrateproof of concept, we showed that perturbations tar-geting OIP5-AS1 (an inferred tumor suppressor) andTUG1 and WT1-AS (inferred onco-lncRNAs) dysre-gulated cancer genes and altered proliferation ofbreast and gynecologic cancer cells. Our analysis in-dicates that, although most lncRNAs are dysregu-lated in a tumor-specific manner, some, includingOIP5-AS1, TUG1, NEAT1, MEG3, and TSIX, synergis-tically dysregulate cancer pathways in multiple tumorcontexts

Pan-cancer Alterations of the MYC Oncogene and Its Proximal Network across the Cancer Genome Atlas

Although theMYConcogene has been implicated incancer, a systematic assessment of alterations ofMYC, related transcription factors, and co-regulatoryproteins, forming the proximal MYC network (PMN),across human cancers is lacking. Using computa-tional approaches, we define genomic and proteo-mic features associated with MYC and the PMNacross the 33 cancers of The Cancer Genome Atlas.Pan-cancer, 28% of all samples had at least one ofthe MYC paralogs amplified. In contrast, the MYCantagonists MGA and MNT were the most frequentlymutated or deleted members, proposing a roleas tumor suppressors.MYCalterations were mutu-ally exclusive withPIK3CA,PTEN,APC,orBRAFalterations, suggesting that MYC is a distinct onco-genic driver. Expression analysis revealed MYC-associated pathways in tumor subtypes, such asimmune response and growth factor signaling; chro-matin, translation, and DNA replication/repair wereconserved pan-cancer. This analysis reveals insightsinto MYC biology and is a reference for biomarkersand therapeutics for cancers with alterations ofMYC or the PMN

Genomic, Pathway Network, and Immunologic Features Distinguishing Squamous Carcinomas

This integrated, multiplatform PanCancer Atlas study co-mapped and identified distinguishing molecular features of squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) from five sites associated with smokin

Spatial Organization and Molecular Correlation of Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes Using Deep Learning on Pathology Images

Beyond sample curation and basic pathologic characterization, the digitized H&E-stained images of TCGA samples remain underutilized. To highlight this resource, we present mappings of tumorinfiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) based on H&E images from 13 TCGA tumor types. These TIL maps are derived through computational staining using a convolutional neural network trained to classify patches of images. Affinity propagation revealed local spatial structure in TIL patterns and correlation with overall survival. TIL map structural patterns were grouped using standard histopathological parameters. These patterns are enriched in particular T cell subpopulations derived from molecular measures. TIL densities and spatial structure were differentially enriched among tumor types, immune subtypes, and tumor molecular subtypes, implying that spatial infiltrate state could reflect particular tumor cell aberration states. Obtaining spatial lymphocytic patterns linked to the rich genomic characterization of TCGA samples demonstrates one use for the TCGA image archives with insights into the tumor-immune microenvironment

Robust estimation of bacterial cell count from optical density

Optical density (OD) is widely used to estimate the density of cells in liquid culture, but cannot be compared between instruments without a standardized calibration protocol and is challenging to relate to actual cell count. We address this with an interlaboratory study comparing three simple, low-cost, and highly accessible OD calibration protocols across 244 laboratories, applied to eight strains of constitutive GFP-expressing E. coli. Based on our results, we recommend calibrating OD to estimated cell count using serial dilution of silica microspheres, which produces highly precise calibration (95.5% of residuals <1.2-fold), is easily assessed for quality control, also assesses instrument effective linear range, and can be combined with fluorescence calibration to obtain units of Molecules of Equivalent Fluorescein (MEFL) per cell, allowing direct comparison and data fusion with flow cytometry measurements: in our study, fluorescence per cell measurements showed only a 1.07-fold mean difference between plate reader and flow cytometry data