Sustained fluvial deposition recorded in Mars’ Noachian stratigraphic record

Orbital observation has revealed a rich record of fluvial landforms on Mars, with much of this record dating 3.6–3.0 Ga. Despite widespread geomorphic evidence, few analyses of Mars’ alluvial sedimentary-stratigraphic record exist, with detailed studies of alluvium largely limited to smaller sand-bodies amenable to study in-situ by rovers. These typically metre-scale outcrop dimensions have prevented interpretation of larger scale channel-morphology and long-term basin evolution, vital for understanding the past Martian climate. Here we give an interpretation of a large sedimentary succession at Izola mensa within the NW Hellas Basin rim. The succession comprises channel and barform packages which together demonstrate that river deposition was already well established >3.7 Ga. The deposits mirror terrestrial analogues subject to low-peak discharge variation, implying that river deposition at Izola was subject to sustained, potentially perennial, fluvial flow. Such conditions would require an environment capable of maintaining large volumes of water for extensive time-periods, necessitating a precipitation-driven hydrological cycle

Relationship between Regulatory T Cells and Immune Activation in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Patients Interrupting Antiretroviral Therapy

Persistent immune activation plays a central role in driving Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) disease progression. Whether CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are harmful by suppressing HIV-specific immune responses and/or beneficial through a decrease in immune activation remains debatable. We analysed the relationship between proportion and number of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and immune activation in HIV-infected patients interrupting an effective antiretroviral therapy (ART). Twenty-five patients were included in a substudy of a prospective multicenter trial of treatment interruption (TI) (ANRS 116). Proportions and numbers of Tregs and the proportion of activated CD4 and CD8 T cells were assessed at baseline and month 12 (M12) of TI. Specific anti-HIV CD4 and CD8 responses were investigated at baseline and M12. Non parametric univariate analyses and multivariate linear regression models were conducted. At baseline, the proportion of Tregs negatively correlated with the proportion of HLA-DR+CD8+T cells (r = −0.519). Following TI, the proportion of Tregs increased from 6.3% to 7.2% (p = 0.029); absolute numbers of Tregs decreased. The increase in the proportion of HLA-DR+CD38+CD8+T cells was significantly related to the increase in proportion of Tregs (p = 0.031). At M12, the proportion of Tregs did not negatively correlate with CD8 T-cell activation. Nevertheless, Tregs retain a suppressive function since depletion of Treg-containing CD4+CD25+ cells led to an increase in lymphoproliferative responses in most patients studied. Our data suggest that Tregs are efficient in controlling residual immune activation in patients with ART-mediated viral suppression. However, the insufficient increase in the proportion and/or the decrease in the absolute number of Tregs result in a failure to control immune activation following TI

Osteoclast Activated FoxP3+ CD8+ T-Cells Suppress Bone Resorption in vitro

BACKGROUND: Osteoclasts are the body's sole bone resorbing cells. Cytokines produced by pro-inflammatory effector T-cells (T(EFF)) increase bone resorption by osteoclasts. Prolonged exposure to the T(EFF) produced cytokines leads to bone erosion diseases such as osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis. The crosstalk between T-cells and osteoclasts has been termed osteoimmunology. We have previously shown that under non-inflammatory conditions, murine osteoclasts can recruit naïve CD8 T-cells and activate these T-cells to induce CD25 and FoxP3 (Tc(REG)). The activation of CD8 T-cells by osteoclasts also induced the cytokines IL-2, IL-6, IL-10 and IFN-γ. Individually, these cytokines can activate or suppress osteoclast resorption. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To determine the net effect of Tc(REG) on osteoclast activity we used a number of in vitro assays. We found that Tc(REG) can potently and directly suppress bone resorption by osteoclasts. Tc(REG) could suppress osteoclast differentiation and resorption by mature osteoclasts, but did not affect their survival. Additionally, we showed that Tc(REG) suppress cytoskeletal reorganization in mature osteoclasts. Whereas induction of Tc(REG) by osteoclasts is antigen-dependent, suppression of osteoclasts by Tc(REG) does not require antigen or re-stimulation. We demonstrated that antibody blockade of IL-6, IL-10 or IFN-γ relieved suppression. The suppression did not require direct contact between the Tc(REG) and osteoclasts. SIGNIFICANCE: We have determined that osteoclast-induced Tc(REG) can suppress osteoclast activity, forming a negative feedback system. As the CD8 T-cells are activated in the absence of inflammatory signals, these observations suggest that this regulatory loop may play a role in regulating skeletal homeostasis. Our results provide the first documentation of suppression of osteoclast activity by CD8 regulatory T-cells and thus, extend the purview of osteoimmunology

Climatic versus halokinetic control on sedimentation in a dryland fluvial succession

Fluvial systems and their preserved stratigraphic expression as the fill of evolving basins are controlled by multiple factors, which can vary both spatially and temporally, including prevailing climate, sediment provenance, localized changes in the rates of creation and infill of accommodation in response to subsidence, and diversion by surface topographic features. In basins that develop in response to halokinesis, mobilized salt tends to be displaced by sediment loading to create a series of rapidly subsiding mini-basins, each separated by growing salt walls. The style and pattern of fluvial sedimentation governs the rate at which accommodation becomes filled, whereas the rate of growth of basin-bounding salt walls governs whether an emergent surface topography will develop that has the potential to divert and modify fluvial drainage pathways and thereby dictate the resultant fluvial stratigraphic architecture. Discerning the relative roles played by halokinesis and other factors, such as climate-driven variations in the rate and style of sediment supply, is far from straightforward. Diverse stratigraphic architectures present in temporally equivalent, neighbouring salt-walled mini-basins demonstrate the effectiveness of topographically elevated salt walls as agents that partition and guide fluvial pathways, and thereby control the loci of accumulation of fluvial successions in evolving mini-basins: drainage pathways can be focused into a single mini-basin to preserve a sand-prone fill style, whilst leaving adjoining basins relatively sand-starved. By contrast, over the evolutionary history of a suite of salt-walled mini-basins, region-wide changes in fluvial style can be shown to have been driven by changes in palaeoclimate and sediment-delivery style. The Triassic Moenkopi Formation of the south-western USA represents the preserved expression of a dryland fluvial system that accumulated across a broad, low-relief alluvial plain, in a regressive continental to paralic setting. Within south-eastern Utah, the Moenkopi Formation accumulated in a series of actively subsiding salt-walled mini-basins, ongoing evolution of which exerted a significant control on the style of drainage and resultant pattern of stratigraphic accumulation. Drainage pathways developed axial (parallel) to salt walls, resulting in compartmentalized accumulation of strata whereby neighbouring mini-basins record significant variations in sedimentary style at the same stratigraphic level. Despite the complexities created by halokinetic controls, the signature of climate-driven sediment delivery can be deciphered from the preserved succession by comparison with the stratigraphic expression of part of the system that accumulated beyond the influence of halokinesis, and this approach can be used to demonstrate regional variations in climate-controlled styles of sediment delivery

Geophysical and intrusive site investigations to detect an abandoned coal-mine access shaft, Apedale, Staffordshire, UK

Derelict coal mine workings at Apedale in Staffordshire, United Kingdom were the focus for a multi-disciplinary geophysical and intrusive site investigation. Objectives were to: 1) locate the surface entrance to a coal mine access shaft, 2) determine the inclined shaft’s changing depth below present ground level, 3) determine if it was open, partly or fully filled, 4) locate it beneath a known shaft if (1) was unsuccessful and finally 5) compare geophysical mineshaft detection techniques in difficult ground conditions. After initial site reconnaissance, desktop study and modelling, field work collected surface micro-gravity and electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) 2D profiles to locate the shaft and entrance area. The made-ground nature of the site made identification of clear geophysical anomalies challenging. Subsequent intrusive investigations to locate the entrance were unsuccessful. A second phase of fieldwork down a known mineshaft imaged three geophysical anomalies beneath this shaft floor; after comparison with modelled data, subsequent intrusive investigations of the ERI anomaly successfully located the target shaft. Collapsed material was progressively cleared to the surface and a new shaft entrance stabilized. Surface micro-gravity 2D profiles surprisingly did not produce clear target anomalies, likely to be due to the target depth below ground level and the variety of above-ground, relict mine structures present. Surface ERI 2D profiles were less affected by above-ground structures but investigated anomalies were found to be heterogeneous ground materials. Comparisons of 2D micro-gravity, ERI and ground-penetrating radar profiles collected within a mineshaft showed ERI data were optimal. 2D micro-gravity and ERI modelling were shown to aid geophysical interpretations

Evolution of fluvial systems in salt-walled minibasins: a review and new insights

The preserved sedimentary expression of fluvial successions accumulated in salt-walled mini-basins records the complex history of basin subsidence, the style of sediment supply, and the pattern of sediment distribution in response to a range of fluvial processes throughout the evolution of such basins. Temporal and spatial variations in the rate of basin subsidence govern the generation of accommodation space, whereas the rate and style of sediment supply govern how available accommodation is filled; together these parameters act as principal controls that dictate the gross-scale pattern of fluvial sedimentation. Additional factors that influence fluvial stratigraphic architecture in salt-walled mini-basins are: (i) the trend and form of inherited basement lineations and faults that control the geometry, orientation and spacing of salt walls that develop in response to halokinesis; (ii) salt thickness and composition that dictate both the maximum potential basin-fill thickness within a developing mini-basin and the rate of evacuation (migration) of salt from beneath evolving mini-basins, leading to the growth of confining salt walls, uplift of which may generate surface topographic expression that influences fluvial drainage patterns; (iii) climate that dictates fluvial style and the processes by which sediment is distributed; and (iv) the inherited direction of drainage relative to the trend of elongate salt walls and locus of sediment supply that dictates how sediments are distributed both within a single mini-basin and between adjacent basins. Examples of fluvial sedimentary architectures preserved in salt-walled mini-basins from a number of geographic regions are used to illustrate and document the primary controls that influence patterns of fluvial sediment accumulation. The distribution of fluvial architectural elements preserved within mini-basins follows a predictable pattern, both within individual basin depocentres and between adjoining basins: drainage pathways preferentially migrate to topographic lows within basins, such as developing rim-synclines, and away from topographic highs, such as uplifting salt walls or developing turtle-back structures. This paper demonstrates a range of fluvial–halokinetic interactions through consideration of a series of case studies, which demonstrate the current understanding of fluvial response to salt-walled mini-basin evolution and which highlight gaps in the current understandin

Large wind ripples on Mars: a record of atmospheric evolution

Wind blowing over sand on Earth produces decimeter-wavelength ripples and hundred-meter– to kilometer-wavelength dunes: bedforms of two distinct size modes. Observations from the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter reveal that Mars hosts a third stable wind-driven bedform, with meter-scale wavelengths. These bedforms are spatially uniform in size and typically have asymmetric profiles with angle-of-repose lee slopes and sinuous crest lines, making them unlike terrestrial wind ripples. Rather, these structures resemble fluid-drag ripples, which on Earth include water-worked current ripples, but on Mars instead form by wind because of the higher kinematic viscosity of the low-density atmosphere. A reevaluation of the wind-deposited strata in the Burns formation (about 3.7 billion years old or younger) identifies potential wind-drag ripple stratification formed under a thin atmosphere

A record of syn-tectonic sedimentation revealed by perched alluvial fan deposits in Valles Marineris, Mars

On Mars, basins formed by tectonic processes are rare and mostly have unconstrained subsidence histories. One method for understanding this record of subsidence is through associated alluvial fans, which are sourced from uplifted areas and accumulate in downthrown basins. The source, morphology, and superposition of fan deposits can be used to reconstruct fault kinematics, the relative timing of accommodation space formation, and, in turn, the influence tectonic processes had on Martian fan formation. Here we use high-resolution orbital data sets to characterize sediment fan deposits associated with syn-tectonic sedimentation in two regions of the Valles Marineris canyons: Coprates Chasma and Juventae Chasma. These deposits comprise sediment fans on the current canyon floor and low-gradient surfaces perched several kilometers above the canyon floor. We interpret the low-gradient surfaces as remnant sediment fan deposits, which originally formed at the former canyon floor and have since been offset due to normal faulting. The preservation of vertically offset generations of sediment fan deposits supports a progressive, basinward migration of fault activity into the original hanging wall or repeat activity along a fault zone. Each episode of faulting was followed by a basinward shift in drainages, which led to fault-scarp degradation and formation of a new generation of fans. Multiple episodes of syn-tectonic sedimentation occurred during the evolution of the basins, with fluvial activity sporadically active. Our results demonstrate, for the first time on Mars, that depositional cyclicity was linked to tectonic deformation, possibly representative of regional processes throughout Valles Marineris