From farm to table: exploring food handling and hygiene practices of meat and milk value chain actors in Ethiopia

Livestock value chains constitute a source of livelihood for meat and milk value chain actors in Ethiopia, from dairy farmers to other associated value chain actors such as milk traders, abattoir workers, public health officials, veterinarians, butcheries selling meats, milk cooperatives, artisanal milk processors, and transporters. The development of these livestock value chains, however, is constrained by poor food safety and quality, while consumers are also exposed to public health risks due to milk and meat value chain actors’ food handling and hygiene practices. This study used Photovoice and participant observation to explore meat and milk value chain actors’ food handling and hygiene practices in suburban areas of Addis Ababa and neighbouring Oromia in Ethiopia. The results of this study reveal that milk and meat value chain actors’ food handling practices are not aligned with the recommended Ethiopian food safety and quality standards. Low compliance with food safety and quality standards reflected a combination of factors such as lack of incentives, poor road infrastructure and low enforcement of food safety standards. Participatory and visual research methods enable a researcher to collect context-aware data that can lead to the development of policies and intervention strategies that reflect local needs and priorities. The results of this study affirm the need to identify socially acceptable and economically viable policies and intervention strategies that are acceptable to all chain actors; and suggest there is an imperative to train milk and meat value chain actors on good hygiene handling practices, improve road infrastructure, and facilitate access equipment such as fridges and freezers that can contribute to maintaining food safety and quality

Implementing a one health approach to strengthen the management of zoonoses in Ethiopia

In East Africa, a region with many endemic and emerging zoonoses, and in countries such as Ethiopia in particular, One Health (OH) approaches are increasingly seen as effective ways, to mitigate the risk of zoonoses at the interface between human, animal and the environment. The OH approach promotes interdisciplinary cooperation and collaboration between researchers and practitioners from the disciplines of human, animal and environmental health. Moreover, it advocates for the establishment of a public health sector model which recognises the imperative to holistically address diseases that occur in the human, animal and environmental health arena. Key informant interviews were conducted with human and animal health practitioners and academic researchers in Ethiopia to collect data on the implementation of the OH approach to manage zoonotic diseases at the human and animal health interface. Participants' observations were undertaken within animal and human health clinics and government laboratories to gather additional data. Environmental health was not considered in this study as it is not yet fully integrated into the OH approach in Ethiopia. The results reveal a lack of interdisciplinary cooperation, collaboration, and coordination between animal and human health practitioners in operationalising the OH framework in Ethiopia. Professionals in academic and non-academic institutions and organisations are interested in implementing the OH approach, however, an organisational “silo” culture constrains collaboration between institutions dealing with animal and human health. Understaffing and underfunding of institutions were also cited as major challenges to the implementation of a OH approach. Lack of interdisciplinary training for animal and human health practitioners hinders collaboration in the management of zoonoses. Policymakers need to go beyond the rhetoric to a genuine focus on reform of health management and implement policies that bridge human, animal and environmental health. There is a need for multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary training in human, animal and environmental health and collaborative research for the management of zoonoses

Exploring animal husbandry in smallholder dairy systems in Ethiopia using photovoice

This study uses photovoice to explore smallholder dairy farmers’ husbandry knowledge and practices and document how they address constraints faced in pursuing their livelihood strategy. Currently, there is a paucity of farmer-led research in Ethiopia which captures farmers’ local knowledge and lived experiences. This study was conducted in April and May 2021 in Kaliti, a sub-city of Addis Ababa, and Holeta, located near Addis Ababa, in the Oromia region of Ethiopia. Farmers were selected through purposive and snowball sampling approaches based on their previous participation in a bovine tuberculosis study. Farmers selection was based on their experience in dairy farming and willingness to attend research-related meetings and to engage in photo-taking and subsequent group discussions. Farmers were trained on the use of the digital camera and asked to take pictures of their day-to-day activities, challenges faced in pursuing dairy production and how they overcome these challenges. The pictures taken by farmers indicated their attachment to their cattle, cattle disease symptoms, manure management, pest control practices, cattle housing, feeding practices, milking hygiene and storage. Discussions revealed that husbandry challenges faced stemmed from land-use change, declining farm sizes, poor access to veterinary and animal health services, low milk prices and high cattle feed prices. Farmers explained that they had developed knowledge of cattle nutrition, such as feed ration mixing and ways to deal with manure problems. The results of this study underscore that farmers have a good understanding of husbandry challenges and, additionally, have a wealth of local knowledge which can be leveraged, if captured through participatory and visual research methods, such as photovoice, by policymakers to develop context-aware policies and interventions and recommendations regarding improved practices which are economically viable, and socially and culturally acceptable

Biosecurity measures in meat and milk value chains: A study in Bura Sub-county, Kenya

Introduction: Livestock value chains are an important source of employment, income and nutrition in developing countries. Increasing income has led to high demand for animal source products. Zoonoses pose a public health challenge to people producing, handling, processing and consuming animal products. Value chains create contact networks for transmission. Over 60 % of emerging diseases are of zoonotic origin. Outbreaks cause huge losses for countries and their populations. Biosecurity measures constitute a cheap, integrated approach and affordable way of disease control from farm to fork as advocated in the concept of one health. Methods: This research used mixed methods - qualitative and quantitative methods. A semistructured questionnaire was used to test knowledge attitude and practices of value chain actors. The sampling techniques used were snowballing and convenience sampling as no register of actors existed. Enumerators consulted actors on market days as it was the only time they were available. Snowball sampling was used to reach more actors after recommendation by fellow actors. The aim was to reach as many as possible of the population to eliminate bias associated with methods used. Participatory mapping exercises were utilised to map the value chain. The activities and biosecurity measures used were mapped to identify biosecurity gaps in actors’ day to day occupational activities. This was to evaluate occupational risk, biosecurity measures adopted and possible food contamination due to non-implementation of measures. Key informant interviews were conducted with key actors like government institutions and actors to better understand key issues that arose during survey. Observations were made to compare responses and practices. Findings and interpretations: The study results indicate that there is low knowledge of disease, symptoms and biosecurity measures among value chain actors, who do not perceive zoonoses as a serious problem. This is reflected by low levels use of protective personal equipment, low levels of medical check-ups, risky occupational activities which expose actors and consumers to zoonotic risks. Cultural practises like consumption of raw offal, milk and occasional slaughtering of sick or dead animals pose a public health problem. Poor sanitation and hygiene like open defecation, use of untreated water, poor packaging and lack of training in food handling exposes food to contamination by actors. The area lacks a sewerage system and the waste management system is not sufficient to address zoonotic disease associated with animal waste. Governance challenges include small budget, bureaucracy, understaffing, poor planning and corruption exist leading to non-enforcement of laws and regulation. There is low institutional support for adoption of biosecurity measures and extension service is poorly equipped to deal with high demand in the region. Hospitals are not equipped to properly and incidences of misdiagnosis are common. Women have low education, low training, low knowledge and poor access to resources, highlighting gender issues and inequalities in value chains

From farm to table: exploring food handling and hygiene practices of meat and milk value chain actors in Ethiopia

Livestock value chains constitute a source of livelihood for meat and milk value chain actors in Ethiopia, from dairy farmers to other associated value chain actors such as milk traders, abattoir workers, public health officials, veterinarians, butcheries selling meats, milk cooperatives, artisanal milk processors, and transporters. The development of these livestock value chains, however, is constrained by poor food safety and quality, while consumers are also exposed to public health risks due to milk and meat value chain actors' food handling and hygiene practices.This study used Photovoice and participant observation to explore meat and milk value chain actors' food handling and hygiene practices in suburban areas of Addis Ababa and neighbouring Oromia in Ethiopia. The results of this study reveal that milk and meat value chain actors' food handling practices are not aligned with the recommended Ethiopian food safety and quality standards. Low compliance with food safety and quality standards reflected a combination of factors such as lack of incentives, poor road infrastructure and low enforcement of food safety standards.Participatory and visual research methods enable a researcher to collect context-aware data that can lead to the development of policies and intervention strategies that reflect local needs and priorities. The results of this study affirm the need to identify socially acceptable and economically viable policies and intervention strategies that are acceptable to all chain actors; and suggest there is an imperative to train milk and meat value chain actors on good hygiene handling practices, improve road infrastructure, and facilitate access equipment such as fridges and freezers that can contribute to maintaining food safety and quality

Adoption of dairy technologies in smallholder dairy farms in Ethiopia

The adoption of modern agricultural technologies in Ethiopia’s dairy production system remains underutilized and under-researched yet it is a promising sector to aid in reducing poverty, improving the food security situation and the welfare of rural households, and in ensuring environmental sustainability. This paper uses the Negative Binomial regression model to examine determinants of multiple agricultural technology adoption in the Addis Ababa and Oromia regions of Ethiopia. Data was collected from 159 smallholder dairy farms in Ethiopia’s Addis Ababa and Oromia regions exploring 19 technologies used by the farmers during the study period. The findings show that farm location and herd size impact adoption decisions. Increasing herd size is associated with increased uptake of multiple technologies. Further, as farmer education level increases the more likely farmers are to adopt multiple technologies. The increase in the number of female workers is positively associated with the adoption of multiple dairy technologies. In terms of farmers’/workers’ years of experience, those with no years of work experience are less likely to have adopted multiple technologies than those with more than 5 years of experience. However, this could be due to a number of factors where experience stands as a proxy value. Trust in information from government agencies was associated with a higher propensity to adopt multiple dairy technology as was farmer perception of fellow farmers as peers compared to those who perceive them as competitors. This is an important finding as it may help policymakers or institutions explore knowledge exchange and diffusion of innovation strategies tailored to specific farming and community situations. Studies have shown that farmers within a social group learn from each other more fully about the benefits and usage of new technology. These findings are of value in future technology adoption studies, particularly which factors influence the intensity of adoption of multiple technologies by smallscale producers

Adoption of Biosecurity Practices in Smallholder Dairy Farms in Ethiopia

Dairy production is an important livelihood source for smallholder dairy farmers who produce the majority of milk consumed and traded in Ethiopia. Dairy production is, however, constrained by livestock diseases that impact farm productivity, food safety, and animal welfare. Biosecurity measures (BSM) include all risk reduction strategies designed to avoid the introduction of pathogenic infections from outside and minimise the spread of diseases within dairy herds. This study used a cross-sectional survey to investigate the adoption of BSM in dairy farms in Addis Ababa and Oromia regions of Ethiopia. Using a questionnaire, scores for adopted external and internal BSM were calculated based on the Ghent’s University Biocheck tool to compare the performance of different farms in Ethiopia. The weighted external biosecurity score was 49.1%, which was below average (below 50% adoption), while the weighted internal biosecurity score was 55.5%. Low adoption of crucial BSM increases the risk of disease introduction into dairy farms and transmission within herds. Adoption of BSM at the farm level was driven by individual, demographic, and socio-economic drivers, including education, farming system, milk value chain, and farming experience among others. Results of this research reveal low adoption of BSM and the imperative to encourage farmers to implement BSM can lead to a reduction in disease pressures and, thus, a reduction in antibiotic use and increased dairy farms productivity, and improved animal health and welfare. Farmers can be encouraged through proactive engagement with veterinarians and extension professionals. Moreover, creating a favourable policy environment can support farmers to adopt and implement BSM, given the known fact that “prevention is better and cheaper than curing diseases.

The role of power relationships, trust and social networks in shaping milk quality in Kenya

The objective of this study was to examine social networks in dairy value chains (DVCs) in Kenya and understand how DVC actors' power relationships and trust influence their behaviour regarding milk quality. We conducted a stakeholder analysis using the Net-Map tool in Laikipia, Nakuru and Nyandarua counties in Kenya. VisuaLyzer software was used to analyse the social networks. Thematic content analysis of the discussions, recorded during the mapping exercise, was undertaken using ATLAS.ti. Formal DVC had more actors and dense social networks characterised by vertical and horizontal integration, high levels of power asymmetries between actors, limited trust and short-term contractual arrangements. Informal DVC was characterised by fewer actors and less dense social networks, low levels of power asymmetries between actors and a high level of trust due to the existence of reciprocal personal relationships. Milk was perceived to be of higher quality in the formal value chain reflecting top-down enforcement of milk standards, bottom-up collective action, power asymmetries and contractual relationships. Poor milk quality management in the informal DVC underscores the need for powerful actors, e.g. regulatory agencies, and buyers such as processors, to influence other DVC actors' behavioural change. Understanding and leveraging DVC social networks and actors' power and addressing power asymmetries and enhancing trust between actors will increase compliance with milk quality standards. There is an urgent imperative to design policies and interventions which empower DVC actors, by providing economic incentives, enhancing their skills and knowledge and their access to infrastructure which facilitates milk quality improvement

Comparison of alternative evidence summary and presentation formats in clinical guideline development: a mixed-method study.

BACKGROUND: Best formats for summarising and presenting evidence for use in clinical guideline development remain less well defined. We aimed to assess the effectiveness of different evidence summary formats to address this gap. METHODS: Healthcare professionals attending a one-week Kenyan, national guideline development workshop were randomly allocated to receive evidence packaged in three different formats: systematic reviews (SRs) alone, systematic reviews with summary-of-findings tables, and 'graded-entry' formats (a 'front-end' summary and a contextually framed narrative report plus the SR). The influence of format on the proportion of correct responses to key clinical questions, the primary outcome, was assessed using a written test. The secondary outcome was a composite endpoint, measured on a 5-point scale, of the clarity of presentation and ease of locating the quality of evidence for critical neonatal outcomes. Interviews conducted within two months following completion of trial data collection explored panel members' views on the evidence summary formats and experiences with appraisal and use of research information. RESULTS: 65 (93%) of 70 participants completed questions on the prespecified outcome measures. There were no differences between groups in the odds of correct responses to key clinical questions. 'Graded-entry' formats were associated with a higher mean composite score for clarity and accessibility of information about the quality of evidence for critical neonatal outcomes compared to systematic reviews alone (adjusted mean difference 0.52, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.99). There was no difference in the mean composite score between SR with SoF tables and SR alone. Findings from interviews with 16 panelists indicated that short narrative evidence reports were preferred for the improved clarity of information presentation and ease of use. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that 'graded-entry' evidence summary formats may improve clarity and accessibility of research evidence in clinical guideline development. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN05154264

Implementing a one health approach to strengthen the management of zoonoses in Ethiopia

In East Africa, a region with many endemic and emerging zoonoses, and in countries such as Ethiopia in particular, One Health (OH) approaches are increasingly seen as effective ways, to mitigate the risk of zoonoses at the interface between human, animal and the environment. The OH approach promotes interdisciplinary cooperation and collaboration between researchers and practitioners from the disciplines of human, animal and environmental health. Moreover, it advocates for the establishment of a public health sector model which recognises the imperative to holistically address diseases that occur in the human, animal and environmental health arena.Key informant interviews were conducted with human and animal health practitioners and academic researchers in Ethiopia to collect data on the implementation of the OH approach to manage zoonotic diseases at the human and animal health interface. Participants' observations were undertaken within animal and human health clinics and government laboratories to gather additional data. Environmental health was not considered in this study as it is not yet fully integrated into the OH approach in Ethiopia.The results reveal a lack of interdisciplinary cooperation, collaboration, and coordination between animal and human health practitioners in operationalising the OH framework in Ethiopia. Professionals in academic and non-academic institutions and organisations are interested in implementing the OH approach, however, an organisational "silo" culture constrains collaboration between institutions dealing with animal and human health. Understaffing and underfunding of institutions were also cited as major challenges to the implementation of a OH approach. Lack of interdisciplinary training for animal and human health practitioners hinders collaboration in the management of zoonoses.Policymakers need to go beyond the rhetoric to a genuine focus on reform of health management and implement policies that bridge human, animal and environmental health. There is a need for multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary training in human, animal and environmental health and collaborative research for the management of zoonoses