An archaeological study of farming communities on the Northern Shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza, Uganda

The goal of this study was to explore the archaeology of farming communities on the northern shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza, Uganda. The study explored the process of transition to farming, and the settlement history and subsistence structures of communities of both the Late Stone Age (LSA) and the Early Iron Age (EIA). Further, the study explored the LSA–EIA relationship and compared the archaeology of the northern shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza with the archaeology, as it is widely understood, of the lake’s eastern and western shores. The study used survey, excavation, flotation, and dating methods to collect data from the Busia and Namayingo districts. It also performed ceramics, lithics, bone point, stable isotope, osteoarchaeological, faunal, and botanical analyses. The study identified 24 new archaeological sites of which five were excavated—three were Kansyore LSA sites, one was an LSA–EIA site, and one was a Late Iron Age (LIA) site. Well-preserved LSA and EIA burials dating from 6634 to 6479 BC and from AD 339 to 437 were excavated systematically for the very first time in Uganda. Further, the study identified a new Kansyore phase, namely, the Middle Kansyore phase, dating from 3465 to 3495 BC. This study was the first of its kind to confirm the presence of ceramic hunter-gatherers and EIA farmers in the study area and to indicate that there was no evidence of contact between the Kansyore LSA communities and the later EIA communities. Further, the study offered insights into the lifeways of each group and clearly indicated that the transition to farming resulted from a combination of factors such as population movements and the environment. The outcomes of this study contributed directly to the big debate on the regional and global understanding of the transition to farming. The study concluded that the northern shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza had been occupied by Pre-ceramic hunter-gatherers, Kansyore LSA and EIA to LIA farming communities who had had no contact with their predecessors. Although information on this area has the potential to provide answers to many future questions about the lifeways of past communities, this potential may be thwarted by the activities of harvesters who operate in the area and depend on the harvesting of sand and shells to make a living. This study recommends that the government should emphasise the importance of cultural impact assessments to be conducted by companies involved in mining or any other development that is likely to hinder the survival of cultural sites. This study had to make use of purposive survey approaches because of limited funds and time, as a result of which most of the sites in the area under study remained unknown archaeologically; therefore, future researchers should conduct surveys in this area. Finally, sensitisation of the locals about the importance of preserving their culture and heritage should be part and parcel of every future project to avoid site destruction by local people.Thesis (PhD (Archaeology))--University of Pretoria, 2021.Anthropology and ArchaeologyPhD (Archaeology)Unrestricte

Kansyore fisher-hunter-gatherers abandoned the Northeastern Lake Victoria Shoreline during an Arid Period in the Middle Holocene : a reconsideration of dates from Western Kenya with new radiometric and faunal evidence from the Namundiri a shell midden, Eastern Uganda

Kansyore pottery-using groups of the northeastern Lake Victoria Basin represent one of only a few examples of ‘complex’ hunter-gatherers in Africa. Archaeologists link evidence of specialized fishing, a seasonal land-use cycle between lake and riverine sites, and intensive investment in ceramic production to behavioral complexity after 9 thousand years ago (ka). However, a gap in the Kansyore radiocarbon record of the region between ~7 and 4.4 cal ka limits explanations of when and why social and economic changes occurred. This study provides the first evidence of lakeshore occupation during this temporal break at the only well-studied Kansyore site in eastern Uganda, Namundiri A. Within the context of other sites in nearby western Kenya, radiometric and faunal data from the site indicate a move from the lake to a greater reliance on riverine habitats with middle Holocene aridity ~5–4 cal ka and the arrival of food producers to the region after ~3 cal ka.Wenner-Gren Foundation, Washington University in St. Louis, the University of Pretoria and the National Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences in South Africa.https://brill.com/jaa/Anthropology and Archaeolog

Coastal Subsistence, Maritime Trade, and the Colonization of Small Offshore Islands in Eastern African Prehistory

Recent archaeological research has firmly established eastern Africa's offshore islands as important localities for understanding the region's pre-Swahili maritime adaptations and early Indian Ocean trade connections. While the importance of the sea and small offshore islands to the development of urbanized and mercantile Swahili societies has long been recognized, the formative stages of island colonization—and in particular the processes by which migrating Iron Age groups essentially became “maritime”—are still relatively poorly understood. Here we present the results of recent archaeological fieldwork in the Mafia Archipelago, which aims to understand these early adaptations and situate them within a longer-term trajectory of island settlement and pre-Swahili cultural developments. We focus on the results of zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical, and material culture studies relating to early subsistence and trade on this island to explore the changing significance of marine resources to the local economy. We also discuss the implications of these maritime adaptations for the development of local and long-distance Indian Ocean trade networks

Coastal subsistence, maritime trade, and the colonization of small offshore islands in eastern African prehistory

Recent archaeological research has firmly established eastern Africa’s offshore islands as important localities for understanding the region’s pre-Swahili maritime adaptations and early Indian Ocean trade connections. While the importance of the sea and small offshore islands to the development of urbanized and mercantile Swahili societies has long been recognized, the formative stages of island colonization—and in particular the processes by which migrating Iron Age groups essentially became “maritime”—are still relatively poorly understood. Here we present the results of recent archaeological fieldwork in the Mafia Archipelago, which aims to understand these early adaptations and situate them within a longer-term trajectory of island settlement and pre-Swahili cultural developments. We focus on the results of zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical, and material culture studies relating to early subsistence and trade on this island to explore the changing significance of marine resources to the local economy. We also discuss the implications of these maritime adaptations for the development of local and long-distance Indian Ocean trade networks.The Sealinks Project is funded through a grant toNicole Boivin from the European Research Council (StarterGrant 206148) under the “Ideas” specific Programme of the 7th Framework Programme (FP7). Additional funding includes: postdoctoral fellowships from the British Academy (2010–2013) and the University of Queensland (2015–2017) to Alison Crowther; a Fondation Fyssen Postdoctoral Grant toEr´endira Quintana Morales; and a postdoctoral fellowship from the Government of the Balearic Islands (Conselleria d’Educaci´o) and the European Social Fund to Llorenc¸ Picornell-Gelabert. Fieldwork was carried out under COSTECH Research Permit no. 2012-303-ER-2011-85 and the Division of Antiquities (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania) excavation license no. EA.402/605/01 issued to Alison Crowther, and with the support and permission of theRegionalAdministrative Secretary (Dar es Salaam andCoast/Pwani), the District Administrative Secretary (Mafia), and the Village Executive Officer (Mtendaji wa Kijiji, Juani).http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uica20hb2016Anthropology and Archaeolog

Coastal subsistence, maritime trade, and the colonization of small offshore islands in eastern African prehistory

Recent archaeological research has firmly established eastern Africa’s offshore islands as important localities for understanding the region’s pre-Swahili maritime adaptations and early Indian Ocean trade connections. While the importance of the sea and small offshore islands to the development of urbanized and mercantile Swahili societies has long been recognized, the formative stages of island colonization—and in particular the processes by which migrating Iron Age groups essentially became “maritime”—are still relatively poorly understood. Here we present the results of recent archaeological fieldwork in the Mafia Archipelago, which aims to understand these early adaptations and situate them within a longer-term trajectory of island settlement and pre-Swahili cultural developments. We focus on the results of zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical, and material culture studies relating to early subsistence and trade on this island to explore the changing significance of marine resources to the local economy. We also discuss the implications of these maritime adaptations for the development of local and long-distance Indian Ocean trade networks.The Sealinks Project is funded through a grant toNicole Boivin from the European Research Council (StarterGrant 206148) under the “Ideas” specific Programme of the 7th Framework Programme (FP7). Additional funding includes: postdoctoral fellowships from the British Academy (2010–2013) and the University of Queensland (2015–2017) to Alison Crowther; a Fondation Fyssen Postdoctoral Grant toEr´endira Quintana Morales; and a postdoctoral fellowship from the Government of the Balearic Islands (Conselleria d’Educaci´o) and the European Social Fund to Llorenc¸ Picornell-Gelabert. Fieldwork was carried out under COSTECH Research Permit no. 2012-303-ER-2011-85 and the Division of Antiquities (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania) excavation license no. EA.402/605/01 issued to Alison Crowther, and with the support and permission of theRegionalAdministrative Secretary (Dar es Salaam andCoast/Pwani), the District Administrative Secretary (Mafia), and the Village Executive Officer (Mtendaji wa Kijiji, Juani).http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uica20hb2016Anthropology and Archaeolog

Kansyore fisher-hunter-gatherers abandoned the northeastern Lake Victoria shoreline during an arid period in the middle Holocene: A reconsideration of dates from western Kenya with new radiometric and faunal evidence from the Namundiri A shell midden, eastern Uganda

Kansyore pottery-using groups of the northeastern Lake Victoria Basin represent one of only a few examples of ‘complex’ hunter-gatherers in Africa. Archaeologists link evidence of specialized fishing, a seasonal land-use cycle between lake and riverine sites, and intensive investment in ceramic production to behavioral complexity after 9000 years ago (ka). However, a gap in the Kansyore radiocarbon record of the region between ~7 and 4.4 cal ka limits explanations of when and why social and economic changes occurred. This study provides the first evidence of lakeshore occupation during this temporal break at the only well-studied Kansyore site in eastern Uganda, Namundiri A. Within the context of other sites in nearby western Kenya, radiometric and faunal data from the site indicate a move from the lake to a greater reliance on riverine habitats with middle Holocene aridity ~5-4 cal ka and the arrival of food producers to the region after ~3 cal ka

Late Quaternary speleogenesis and landscape evolution in a tropical carbonate island: Pango la Kuumbi (Kuumbi Cave), Zanzibar

Kuumbi Cave is one of a group of caves that underlie a flight of marine terraces in Pleistocene limestone in eastern Zanzibar (Indian Ocean). Drawing on the findings of geoarchaeological field survey and archaeological excavation, we discuss the formation and evolution of Kuumbi Cave and its wider littoral landscape. In the later part of the Quaternary (last ca. 250,000 years?), speleogenesis and terrace formation were driven by the interplay between glacioeustatic sea level change and crustal uplift at rates of ca. 0.10-0.20 mm/yr. Two units of backreef/reef limestone were deposited during ‘optimal’ (highest) highstands, tentatively correlated with MIS 7 and 5; (mainly) erosive marine terraces formed in these limestones in ‘suboptimal’ highstands. Kuumbi and other sub-terrace caves developed as flank margin caves, in the seaward portion of freshwater lenses during such ‘suboptimal’ highstands. Glacioeustacy-induced fluctuations of the groundwater table may have resulted in shifts from vadose (with deposition of well-developed speleothems) to phreatic/epiphreatic conditions in these caves. At Kuumbi, Late Pleistocene (pre-20,000 cal. BP) ceiling collapse initiated colluvial deposition near-entrance and opened the cave to large plants and animals, including humans. A phase of terminal Pleistocene human occupation ca. 18,500-17,000 cal. BP resulted in the deposition of a dense assemblage of Achatina spp. landsnails, alongside marine molluscs and mammal remains (including zebra, buffalo and other taxa now extinct on Zanzibar). The Holocene part of the cave stratigraphy near-entrance records phases of abandonment and intensified late Holocene human use

Iron Age agriculture, fishing and trade in the Mafia Archipelago, Tanzania: new data from Ukunju Cave

Small-scale excavations were recently undertaken at the site of Ukunju Cave in the Mafia Archipelago, Tanzania, to collect new bioarchaeological and material culture data relating to the site's occupation and the nature of early subsistence and long-distance trade in the region. Our findings suggest that occupation of the cave began during the Middle Iron Age (MIA, seventh to tenth centuries AD), as indicated by the presence of local Early Tana Tradition (ETT)/Triangular Incised Ware (TIW) pottery in the lowest layers above bedrock, as well as small quantities of imported ceramics and glass beads also dating from the mid- to the late first millennium AD. Small assemblages of faunal and botanical remains, including introduced African crops (pearl millet, sorghum, baobab and possibly cowpea) were found in association with these finds, indicating that these MIA communities practised a mixed economy of fishing, domestic livestock keeping and agriculture. In addition, the presence of cotton suggests they may have also been producing fibres or textiles, most likely for local use, but possibly also for long distance trade. Although some quartz artefacts were recovered, we found no evidence of any pre-Iron Age LSA culture at the cave, contrary to previous claims about the site

Iron Age agriculture, fishing and trade in the Mafia Archipelago, Tanzania: new evidence from Ukunju Cave

Small-scale excavations were recently undertaken at the site of Ukunju Cave in the Mafia Archipelago, Tanzania, to collect new bioarchaeological and material culture data relating to the site\u27s occupation and the nature of early subsistence and long-distance trade in the region. Our findings suggest that occupation of the cave began during the Middle Iron Age (MIA, seventh to tenth centuries AD), as indicated by the presence of local Early Tana Tradition (ETT)/Triangular Incised Ware (TIW) pottery in the lowest layers above bedrock, as well as small quantities of imported ceramics and glass beads also dating from the mid- to the late first millennium AD. Small assemblages of faunal and botanical remains, including introduced African crops (pearl millet, sorghum, baobab and possibly cowpea) were found in association with these finds, indicating that these MIA communities practised a mixed economy of fishing, domestic livestock keeping and agriculture. In addition, the presence of cotton suggests they may have also been producing fibres or textiles, most likely for local use, but possibly also for long distance trade. Although some quartz artefacts were recovered, we found no evidence of any pre-Iron Age LSA culture at the cave, contrary to previous claims about the site. Un travail pionnier visant à l\u27étude de l\u27occupation de la côte est-africaine avant l\u27Âge de Fer a relevé les indices d\u27une installation de groupes à l\u27Âge de Pierre tardif et au Néolithique sur plusieurs îles dont Zanzibar, Pemba et Mafia. Il a été proposé que ces occupations étaient associées à des marchandises de l\u27Océan Indien et des animaux domestiques et qu\u27elles dataient des derniers millénaires av. J.-C. Ces données ont fait l\u27objet de beaucoup de controverses et de débats, conduisant certains à remettre en cause la datation des sites, la qualité de la stratigraphie et l\u27identification des restes bio-archéologiques. Pour résoudre ces problèmes chronologiques, le projet Sealinks a récemment mené des fouilles à petite échelle dans la grotte de Ukunju, sur l\u27île de Juani, Mafia. Un ancien sondage a été ré-ouvert et les sédiments basaux fouillés jusqu\u27au sol stérile. Nos résultats suggèrent que l\u27occupation de la grotte commença au cours de l\u27Âge de Fer moyen (MIA), comme l\u27indique la présence de poterie de tradition Tana/Triangulaire Incisé (TT/TIW) dans les niveaux les plus bas, ainsi que de petites quantités de céramiques et de perles de verre importées datant de la deuxième moitié du premier millénaire ap. J.-C. Une petite quantité de plantes africaines introduites, y compris du mil, du sorgho, du baobab et peut-être du niébé, a été recueillie en association avec ces objets, ce qui indiquerait que ces communautés MIA cultivaient le mil et peut-être aussi des légumineuses. La présence de coton suggère qu\u27ils produisaient peut-être aussi des fibres ou des textiles, soit pour une utilisation locale ou pour le commerce sur de longues distances. Bien que certains lithiques en quartz aient été retrouvés, nous n\u27avons décelé aucune donnée indiquant une occupation de la grotte à l\u27Âge de Pierre tardif ou au Néolithique

Overvåking av elvemusling i Norge.

Larsen, B.M. & Magerøy, J.H. 2020. Overvåking av elvemusling i Norge. Årsrapport for 2019. NINA Rapport 1837. Norsk institutt for naturforskning. I «Handlingsplanen for elvemusling Margaritifera margaritifera 2019-2028» inngår kartlegging og overvåking som ett av fem prioriterte satsingsområder. Overvåkingsprogrammet for elvemusling som ble etablert i 2000, ble oppsummert og evaluert i 2017 (NINA Rapport 1350) og videreført med et nytt og revidert opplegg for perioden 2018-2023. Programmet omfatter nå 40 lokaliteter som skal undersøkes en gang hvert sjette år. Dette innebærer årlige undersøkelser av to-fire lokaliteter med standard overvåkingsmetodikk (totalt 20 A-lokaliteter) og to-fire lokaliteter med en enklere metodikk (totalt 20 B-lokaliteter). I 2019 ble det undersøkt fire lokaliteter; to A-lokaliteter: Hunnselva og Aureelva og to B-lokaliteter: Skorgeelva og Sagelvvassdraget. Hunnselva har status som A-lokalitet og er tidligere undersøkt i 2001 og 2008 i overvåkingsprogrammet. I tillegg finnes det en tilstandsbeskrivelse fra 1998. Bestanden er liten og sårbar for ytterligere reduksjon i utbredelse og antall. Det er få og spredte individer i øvre del og flest muslinger finnes i nedre del mot Raufoss sentrum. Selv om det blant de levende muslingene var en stor overvekt av eldre individer i lengdegruppen 85–120 mm var det også et tilskudd av unge individer i 2019. Det ble ikke funnet muslinger mindre enn 50 mm i Hunnselva verken i 1998, 2001 eller 2008. Det var derfor en positiv opplevelse å finne flere individer i 2019 som bare var 8-13 år gamle, tilhørende årsklassene 2006-2011. Den minste muslingen var 45 mm lang. I 2019 fikk Hunnselva dermed et lite løft og oppnådde 9 (mot tidligere 7) av 36 poeng i en poengmodell som beskriver lokalitetenes levedyktighet. Endringen skyldes forekomsten av muslinger mindre enn 50 mm som gjør at bestanden nå kan betegnes som sannsynlig levedyktig. Økologisk tilstand er imidlertid fortsatt moderat slik den også var tidligere. For å oppnå god økologisk tilstand må det også påvises muslinger som er mindre enn 20 mm (nyrekruttering). Skorgeelva har status som B-lokalitet og er ikke undersøkt tidligere i overvåkingsprogrammet, men det finnes enkle tilstandsbeskrivelser fra 2009, 2014 og 2017. Elvemusling forekommer på en ca. 15 km lang strekning i Skorgeelva i varierende tetthet. Det ble funnet elvemusling på alle de fire stasjonene som ble undersøkt i 2019, og strekningen mellom Trolldalen og Skorge hadde gjennomgående høy tetthet av muslinger. Det var imidlertid en overvekt av eldre muslinger, og ingen muslinger var mindre enn 20 mm. Med en andel på ca. 5 % som var mindre enn 50 mm indikerer det en noe mangelfull rekruttering, og det er litt usikkert om den er stor nok til å opprettholde bestanden på litt lengre sikt. I 2014 var det «klare og gode tegn til rekruttering i enkelte partier som ved Bjørndalen (Skorge)» og økologisk tilstand ble angitt som god. I 2019 oppnådde Skorgeelva 21 av 36 poeng i en poengmodell som beskriver lokalitetenes levedyktighet. Bestanden bedømmes å ha høy levedyktighet, og meget høy verneverdi. Men på grunn av manglende nyrekruttering (muslinger mindre enn 20 mm) oppnådde ikke Skorgeelva en økologisk tilstand høyere enn moderat. Rekrutteringen er svak, og for å oppnå god økologisk tilstand må det i tillegg til muslinger mindre enn 50 mm også forekomme nyrekruttering. Ved ungfiskundersøkelser i 2019 var det klar dominans av laks i Skorgeelva, og ørret forekom bare sporadisk. Det ble ikke funnet muslinglarver på noen av laksungene og bestanden av elvemusling må betegnes som en ren «ørretmusling». Dette var et uventet resultat, og mangel på vertsfisk kan dermed være avgjørende for manglende rekruttering hos muslingene i Skorgeelva. Aureelva har status som A-lokalitet og er ikke undersøkt tidligere i overvåkingsprogrammet, men det finnes en tilstandsbeskrivelse fra 1999. Gjennomsnittlig tetthet av levende elvemusling var 8,4 individ pr. m2 på transektene og 23,9 individ pr. minutt søketid på fritellingene i 2019. Dette var en noe høyere tetthet sammenlignet med undersøkelsene fra 1999. Selv om det var en overvekt av muslinger i lengdegruppene mellom 60 og 140 mm var det også et relativt stabilt tilskudd av unge individer mellom 10 og 60 mm i Aureelva i 2019. Det ble riktignok bare funnet fire muslinger som var mindre enn 20 mm, men 25 individer til sammen var mindre enn 50 mm, henholdsvis 1 og 4 % av totalantallet på 653 muslinger. Andelen unge individer har holdt seg relativt stabil fra 1999 til 2019. Bestanden i Aureelva oppnådde 22 av 36 poeng i en poengmodell som beskriver lokalitetenes levedyktighet. Bestanden bedømmes å ha høy levedyktighet, og meget høy verneverdi. Økologisk tilstand ble totalt sett vurdert å være god, men forholdene var tilsynelatende best nedenfor Storhølfossen. Rekrutteringen er noe svak og for å oppnå svært god økologisk tilstand må andelen unge muslinger mindre enn 50 mm øke til minimum 10-15 % samtidig som det fortsatt må forekomme muslinger mindre enn 20 mm (nyrekruttering). På tross av omfattende gravearbeider i elveløpet (bl.a. biotopforbedringer i første halvdel av 1970-tallet), omfattende erosjonssikring i nedre del, forekomst av lakseparasitten Gyrodactylus salaris som forårsaket lav tetthet av laks på 1980-tallet og senere tiltak for å utrydde gyro (fiskesperre og rotenonbehandling) har Aureelva klart å opprettholde en god og relativt stabil bestand av elvemusling. I Aureelva er det laks som er primærvert for muslinglarvene og bestanden karakteriseres som en «laksemusling». Tettheten av laks er meget god i Aureelva, og høyere enn det som er nødvendig for å opprettholde rekrutteringen hos elvemusling. Sagelvvassdraget (Sagelva og Langvassbekken) har status som B-lokalitet og er ikke undersøkt tidligere i overvåkingsprogrammet, men det finnes tilstandsbeskrivelser fra 1999, 2005, 2009 og 2015. I tillegg ble det i 2019 gjennomført en tiltaksutredning for elvemusling i Sagelva med et utvidet program på vannkvalitet, fisk og elvemusling (NINA Rapport 1834). Gjennomsnittlig tetthet av levende elvemusling på de fire overvåkingsstasjonene var 10,1 individ pr. minutt søketid. Det var stor forskjell i tetthet mellom stasjonene (3,4–23,8 individ pr. minutt), men det var størst antall muslinger i øvre del av Sagelva og i Langvassbekken. Langvassbekken, som er en sideelv til Sagelva, regnes som en egen elvemuslinglokalitet. Gjennomsnittlig tetthet av muslinger var om lag det samme i 2009 og 2015 som i 2019, og det er ingen ting som tyder på at det har skjedd de store endringene i tettheten av muslinger i den siste 10-årsperioden. Bestanden i Langvassbekken ble oppdaget første gang i 2015, og resultatet for gjennomsnittlig tetthet er langt på vei det samme i 2015 og 2019. Bestanden i Sagelvvassdraget oppnådde 19 av 36 poeng i en poengmodell som beskriver lokalitetenes levedyktighet. Bestanden bedømmes å ha høy levedyktighet, og meget høy verneverdi. Når antall poeng ble beregnet for Sagelva og Langvassbekken hver for seg, ble poengsummen redusert til 17 poeng for Sagelva og 16 poeng for Langvassbekken. Det ble funnet muslinger mindre enn 20 mm i både Sagelva og Langvassbekken og andelen individ som var mindre enn 50 mm utgjorde 16-17 %. Dette tegner et bilde av to bestander med god rekruttering og svært god økologisk tilstand. Forekomsten av elvemusling har imidlertid en tydelig gradient i Sagelva fra rekrutterende bestand i øvre del til fraværende i nedre del. I Sagelva og Langvassbekken er det ørret som er vertsart for muslinglarvene. Til forskjell fra øvre del av Sagelva er tettheten av ørret svært lav i Langvassbekken, og det kan gi lavere rekruttering enn forventet i bestanden av elvemusling. Årsaken er forekomsten av gjedde og tiltak for å utrydde eller redusere tettheten av gjedde er under planlegging. En annen stor utfordring blir å redusere utslippene fra de gamle deponiene ved Engan og Skjenstad, spesielt med tanke på å oppfylle kravet om minst god økologisk tilstand for hele vassdraget. Fravær av elvemusling er en ting, men dårlig vannkvalitet forårsaker også en svak og stedvis fraværende ørretbestand i vassdraget