The International Monetary Fund Past and Present

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a complex organization whose procedures and policies have a significant impact on the world economy. From its inception in 1944, the IMF has expanded from its original charter as an organization which promotes free trade and monetary exchanges to an institute that maintains a robust international economy through various facilities that assist in maintaining the liquidity necessary for a viable economy. The IMF has consistently added to its operations and influence through the manipulation of the economies of nations who use its credit. The IMF has created, over the past two decades, new ways to obtain and make available additional funds. The quota system, which requires a member to deposit funds based on the nation\u27s economic health, is but one of many accounts available to member nations to assist in temporary balance-of-payments deficits. The 144 member nations of the IMF have an unrivaled source of funds available to them. Unconditionally, funds can be borrowed from the IMF up to 100 percent of a member nation\u27s quota. The IMF can loan additional funds with certain conditions to be met and monitored by the IMF. The IMF is a unique organization with no equal in the international economy. Evolutionary changes since its creation in 1944 have kept the IMF in the forefront of international trade relations and financing agreements. With the creation of its own measure of money, special drawing rights, the IMF may in fact begin to even further involve itself with private banking and thus increase its influence even more on the world economy

An Examination of US Consumer Pet and Veterinary Expenditures, 1980-1999

The veterinary medical profession touches nearly everyone's life, either directly or indirectly. An estimated 58.3% of US households own pets (AVMA, 2002), and most people consume livestock products in the form of meat, dairy products, wool, or leather. The health and well being of all these animals depend heavily on relationships with veterinarians. Veterinarians also contribute to public health through the FDA, CDC, USDA, and numerous other government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels. Issues of primary concern include food safety, biosecurity, and the numerous emerging (and re-emerging) infectious diseases that are zoonotic in nature. Finally, veterinarians have an additional impact through their research contributions. Virtually all of the laboratory animals used in research are raised, housed, and managed under the care of veterinarians, and veterinary researchers regularly provide valuable contributions to the knowledge base in the biomedical sciences. This study was designed to assess the general trends in pet and veterinary expenditures as well as factors associated with pet ownership and expenditures on veterinary medical services. Providing such key information on the sector of greatest economic importance will enhance the probability of sustained economic viability in the veterinary medical profession as a whole.Health Economics and Policy,

A complex network of interactions between mitotic kinases, phosphatases and ESCRT proteins regulates septation and membrane trafficking in S. pombe

Cytokinesis and cell separation are critical events in the cell cycle. We show that Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) genes are required for cell separation in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. We identify genetic interactions between ESCRT proteins and polo and aurora kinases and Cdc14 phosphatase that manifest as impaired growth and exacerbated defects in septation, suggesting that the encoded proteins function together to control these processes. Furthermore, we observed defective endosomal sorting in mutants of plo1, ark1 and clp1, as has been reported for ESCRT mutants, consistent with a role for these kinases in the control of ESCRT function in membrane traffic. Multiple observations indicate functional interplay between polo and ESCRT components: firstly, two-hybrid in vivo interactions are reported between Plo1p and Sst4p, Vps28p, Vps25p, Vps20p and Vps32p; secondly, co-immunoprecipitation of human homologues of Vps20p, Vps32p, Vps24p and Vps2p by human Plk1; and thirdly, in vitro phosphorylation of budding yeast Vps32p and Vps20p by polo kinase. Two-hybrid analyses also identified interactions between Ark1p and Vps20p and Vps32p, and Clp1p and Vps28p. These experiments indicate a network of interactions between ESCRT proteins, plo1, ark1 and clp1 that coordinate membrane trafficking and cell separation in fission yeast

Cellulases from extremely thermophilic bacteria

Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer on earth, and is the major component of urban waste. Thus cellulose must be seen as a very significant renewable source of chemical foodstocks when fossil fuels become restricted

Onshore Transport of Elopomorph Leptocephali and Glass Eels (Pisces: Osteichthyes) in the Florida Keys

The influx of elopomorph leptocephali and glass eels to Florida Bay was monitored on 160 nights from January through December 1993. Metamorphic leptocephali and glass eels were both captured in channel nets moored in Channel Five near Long Key, FL. Eighty-eight percent of the 2,811 leptocephali collected were speckled worm eels (Myrophis punctatus, n = 2,486). The remaining 12% of leptocephali consisted of nine species, including key worm eels (Ahlia egmontis, n = 153), shrimp eels (Ophichthus gomesi, n = 69), and moray eels (Gymnothorax spp., n = 33). The glass eels collected were Myrophis punctatus (n = 230) and Ahlia egmontis (n = 34). Recruitment of leptocephali and glass eels into Florida Bay was seasonal. Myrophis punctatus leptocephali recruited into Florida Bay during fall and winter and were most abundant during November-January. Peak periods of recruitment were associated with nighttime moonless flood tides, strong onshore winds, and easterly (along-shelf) winds. Ahlia egmontis leptocephali recruited during January-April. Ophichthus gomesi was the only species with major recruitment during the summer and fall (July-November). All of the glass eels were captured from January to April

Age and Prostate-Specific Antigen Level Prior to Diagnosis Predict Risk of Death from Prostate Cancer.

A single early prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level has been correlated with a higher likelihood of prostate cancer diagnosis and death in younger men. PSA testing in older men has been considered of limited utility. We evaluated prostate cancer death in relation to age and PSA level immediately prior to prostate cancer diagnosis. Using the Veterans Affairs database, we identified 230,081 men aged 50-89 years diagnosed with prostate cancer and at least one prior PSA test between 1999 and 2009. Prostate cancer-specific death over time was calculated for patients stratified by age group (e.g., 50-59 years, through 80-89 years) and PSA range at diagnosis (10 ranges) using Kaplan-Meier methods. Risk of 10-year prostate cancer mortality across age and PSA was compared using log-rank tests with a Bonferroni adjustment for multiple testing. 10.5% of men diagnosed with prostate cancer died of cancer during the 10-year study period (mean follow-up = 3.7 years). Higher PSA values prior to diagnosis predict a higher risk of death in all age groups (p < 0.0001). Within the same PSA range, older age groups are at increased risk for death from prostate cancer (p < 0.0001). For PSA of 7-10 ng/mL, cancer-specific death, 10 years after diagnosis, increased from 7% for age 50-59 years to 51% for age 80-89 years. Men older than 70 years are more likely to die of prostate cancer at any PSA level than younger men, suggesting prostate cancer remains a significant problem among older men (even those aged 80+) and deserves additional study

Green Infrastructure

The transportation industry has increasingly recognized the vital role sustainability serves in promoting and protecting the transportation infrastructure of the nation. Many state Departments of Transportation have correspondingly increased efforts to incorporate concepts of sustainability into the planning, design, and construction phases of projects and congruently adopted sustainability measures into their internal standard policies and procedures. Sustainably constructed highways foster economic development, promote stewardship of the environment, and solicit citizen involvement for an integrated, comprehensive approach to project planning. As part of an effort to understand the extent to which sustainable design and construction principles are being used, this report selects and analyzes three case studies involving previously completed KYTC projects and assesses their commitment to sustainable concepts. Specifically, this report examines the extent to which KYTC utilized sustainable concepts for each case study as described in FHWA’s INVEST rating system. This research effort comprised three components. First, KTC researchers analyzed KYTC’s policies and manuals for project planning, design, and construction and determined the extent to which INVEST criteria and related principles were incorporated into their standard processes. Second, KTC analyzed the individual case studies themselves, to include project plans and other relevant documentation. Finally, KTC conducted interviews with each of the KYTC district offices responsible for managing those previously completed projects and obtained feedback on the INVEST criteria used for each particular project. Following this approach, KTC validated and finalized the assigned scoring ratings for each case study in accordance with the INVEST scoring guidance. In summary, this report describes the sustainable concepts and corresponding INVEST scores for each project, presents a summary of the main findings, and provides recommendations for the way ahead

Inland Waterway Operational Model & Simulation Along the Ohio River

The inland waterway system of the U.S. is a vital network for transporting key goods and commodities from the point of production to manufacturers and consumers. Shipping materials via the inland waterways is arguably the most economical and environmentally friendly option (compared to hauling freight by trains or railways). Despite the advantages the inland waterways enjoys over competing modes, key infrastructure – such as locks and dams, which help to control water levels on a number of rivers and make navigation possible – is declining. Limited funds have been allocated to make the necessary repairs to lock and dam facilities. Over the past 10 years Inland Waterways Trust Fund resources (which historically funded maintenance and improvement projects) has steadily declined. Locks and dams are of particular importance, because they assist in the maintenance of navigable depths on many of the major inland waterways (Ohio River, Upper Mississippi River, Tennessee River). To better understand the operation of the inland waterway system, this report examines a portion of the Ohio River (extending from Markland Locks and Dam to Lock 53). The specific focus is to determine what delays barge tows as they attempt to lock through these critical facilities. The Ohio River is a particularly important study area. In many ways it is representative of the conditions present throughout the inland waterways system. The average age of the lock and dam facilities exceed 50 years along our study segment. Most of these facilities are operating beyond their intended design life. As locks age, they increasingly demand more scheduled and unscheduled maintenance activities. Maintenance activities often require temporarily shuttering a lock chamber and diverting traffic through another onsite chamber (often of smaller capacity). All of the facilities included in the research area have two lock chambers ‐ thus, if one goes down for maintenance all vessels are diverted through the second chamber. In many cases this situation can produce extensive delays, which precludes cargo from reaching the destination in a timely manner. Recently, the aggregate number of hours that shippers and carriers lose due to delays has escalated. Although the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers – the agency responsible for the management and oversight of locks and dams – has worked to keep traffic flowing on the river, tightening budgets hamper efforts. For shippers and carriers to make informed decisions about when and where to deploy freight on the river, they require knowledge that illuminates factors that are most significant in affecting transit times. In particular this applies to certain conditions that are likely to create delays at lock and dam facilities. The purpose of this report is to 1) develop a comprehensive profile of the Ohio River that provides an overview of how it is integral to U.S. economic security 2) identify salient river characteristics or externally‐driven variables that influence the amount of water flowing through the main channel which consequently impacts vessels’ capacity to navigate 3) use this information (along with a 10‐year data set encompassing over 600,000 observations) to develop an Inland Waterways Operational Model (IWOM). The IWOM objective is to provide the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, shippers, carriers, and other interested parties with access to8 a robust method that aids in the prediction of where and when conditions will arise on the river that have the potential to significantly impact lockage times and queue times (i.e. how long a vessel has to wait after it arrives at a facility to lock through). After qualitatively reviewing different features of the river system that affect vessel traffic, this report outlines two approaches to modeling inland waterway system behavior – a discrete event simulation (DES) model which uses proprietary software, and the IWOM. Although the DES produced robust findings that aligned with the historical data (because it relies upon proprietary software), it does not offer an ideal platform to distribute knowledge to stakeholders. Indeed, this is the major drawback of the DES given a critical objective of this project is to generate usable information for key stakeholders who are involved with inland waterway operations. Conversely, the IWOM is a preferable option given it relies on statistical analysis – in this sense, it is more of an open‐source solution. The IWOM uses linear regression to determine key variables affecting variation in lockage time. The final model accounts for over two‐thirds of the observed variation in lockage times from 2002‐2012, which is our study period. Practically, this means that the difference between predicted values and observed delay times is significantly less than how the delays vary around the composite average seen in the river system (R2 = 0.69). The IWOM confirms that variations in river conditions significantly affect vessel travel times. For example, river discharge ‐ the direction a vessel moves up or down a river ‐ meaningfully influences lockage times. The freight amount a vessel carries, which is represented by the amount of draft and newness of a vessel, influences lockage times. Larger vessels with more draft tend to wait longer and take longer to complete their lockage. The IWOM is less successful at predicting delay times. Because there is greater instability in this data only a modest amount of variation is explained by the model (R2 = 0.23). This, in turn, partly reflects in spillover from one vessel to the next that is difficult for the simulation to impose and account for therefore requiring additional logic. Once completed, the IWOM was used to parameterize a simulation model. This provided a graphical representation of vessels moving along the river. Users have the capability of adjusting the effects of different variables to anticipate how the system may react, and what changes in vessel traffic patterns emerge. This information will be of great use for stakeholders wanting to gain a better understanding of what conditions lockage times will increase or decrease, why delays emerge, and consequently how these impact traffic flows on the river. In programming a simulation model, users are able to visualize and intuit what causes vessel travel times to vary. Although the regression model accomplishes this, for many users this would prove unwieldy and difficult to grasp beyond a conceptual, abstract level. Matching up regression results with a visual counterpart lets users gain immediate and intimate knowledge of river and vessel behavior – this in turn can positively affect shipper and carrier modal choices. The report concludes with some recommendations for IWOM implementation and thoughts on future research needs. Also discussed are the implications results from the present study have for improving our ability to safely, securely, and swiftly move freight on the inland waterways network

Uranium (VI) Adsorbate Structures on Portlandite [Ca(OH)2] Type Surfaces Determined by Computational Modelling and X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy

Portlandite [Ca(OH)2] is a potentially dominant solid phase in the high pH fluids expected within the cementitious engineered barriers of Geological Disposal Facilities (GDF). This study combined X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy with computational modelling in order to provide atomic-scale data which improves our understanding of how a critically important radionuclide (U) will be adsorbed onto this phase under conditions relevant to a GDF environment. Such data are fundamental for predicting radionuclide mass transfer. Surface coordination chemistry and speciation of uranium with portlandite [Ca(OH)2] under alkaline groundwater conditions (ca. pH 12) were determined by both in situ and ex situ grazing incidence extended X-ray absorption fine structure analysis (EXAFS) and by computational modelling at the atomic level. Free energies of sorption of aqueous uranyl hydroxides, [UO2(OH)n]2–n (n = 0–5) with the (001), (100) and (203) or (101) surfaces of portlandite are predicted from the potential of mean force using classical molecular umbrella sampling simulation methods and the structural interactions are further explored using fully periodic density functional theory computations. Although uranyl is predicted to only weakly adsorb to the (001) and (100) clean surfaces, there should be significantly stronger interactions with the (203/101) surface or at hydroxyl vacancies, both prevalent under groundwater conditions. The uranyl surface complex is typically found to include four equatorially coordinated hydroxyl ligands, forming an inner-sphere sorbate by direct interaction of a uranyl oxygen with surface calcium ions in both the (001) and (203/101) cases. In contrast, on the (100) surface, uranyl is sorbed with its axis more parallel to the surface plane. The EXAFS data are largely consistent with a surface structural layer or film similar to calcium uranate, but also show distinct uranyl characteristics, with the uranyl ion exhibiting the classic dioxygenyl oxygens at 1.8 Å and between four and five equatorial oxygen atoms at distances between 2.28 and 2.35 Å from the central U absorber. These experimental data are wholly consistent with the adsorbate configuration predicted by the computational models. These findings suggest that, under the strongly alkaline conditions of a cementitious backfill engineered barrier, there would be significant uptake of uranyl by portlandite to inhibit the mobility of U(VI) from the near field of a geological disposal facility