Retrieving the distribution of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko surface temperatures for individual Rosetta/VIRTIS-M spectra (pixel) by linear spectral unmixing - Method and first results -

Knowledge of surface temperature and its variations as function of illumination conditions is key for understanding the thermodynamical properties, the chemical properties and the physical structure of the regolith (porosity, roughness) of planets and small bodies in the solar system. The surface temperature can be retrieved from near-infrared spectra at wavelengths where thermal emission becomes non-negligible with respect to the reflected components. At 5 micron, the longest wavelength measured by VIRTIS-M on the Rosetta mission which observed comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P/C-G), the minimum brightness temperature that can be measured is ~150K (instrumental noise equivalent temperature). The usual technique is to fit a Planck function to each spectrum, providing one temperature per pixel. However, the calculation of a distribution of temperatures per pixel is justified by the fact that the local topography changes at all scales resulting in variable illumination conditions (variable incidence angle and shadow casting) within the area covered by each pixel. This causes a distribution of temperatures which turns out in a distribution of thermal emission contributions. Furthermore, the combination of different thermal emission contributions (the linear combination of several Planck curves) is not a Planck function. Consequently, fitting one Planck function to a spectrum results in retrieving a value for the brightness temperature that is not representative of thermophysical properties of the regolith, because it is not the average of all temperatures in the area covered by that pixel

Temperature and reflectance derivation from VIRTIS-H observations of 67P

A specific thermal emission model is applied to observations of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko surface by the high-resolution channel of VIRTIS. Signal inversion provides both an effective surface temperature (averaged inside the FoV) and a reflectance spectrum corrected from thermal emission. Details of the organic material band at 3.2 μm [1] and longer wavelengths can then be studied at resolution R ~ 1500-3000 with increased contrast and accuracy

Fresh emplacement of hydrated sodium chloride on Ceres from ascending salty fluids

The surface and internal structure of Ceres show evidence of a global process of aqueous alteration, indicating the existence of an ocean in the past. However, it is not clear whether part of this ocean is still present and whether residual fluids are still circulating in the dwarf planet. These fluids may be exposed in a geologically young surface, and the most promising site to verify the occurrence of present fluids on Ceres is Cerealia Facula dome, in Occator crater. This very young facula exhibits minerals that are relatively rare in our Solar System, the formation of which requires the presence of liquid water in combination with hydrothermal activity. Here we report the discovery of hydrated sodium chloride on Cerealia Facula. These newly identified chloride salts are concentrated on the top of the dome, close to a system of radial fractures. The spatial distribution of the hydrated phase suggests that chloride salts are the solid residue of deep brines that reached the surface only recently, or are still ascending. These salts are very efficient in maintaining Ceres's warm internal temperature and lowering the eutectic temperature of the brines, in which case ascending salty fluids may exist in Ceres today

Mapping of thermal properties of comet 67P/C-G and temporal variations

The long-term evolution of the surfaces of comets depends mainly on the erosion rate that is driven by the thermal properties of the regolith and the sub-surface material. Following the diurnal and the seasonal thermal cycles, dust and gas are released progressively, increasing the erosion process. The amount of dust released depends on the surface and subsurface temperatures and thus on thermal inertia and bulk composition.The ESA's Rosetta spacecraft has followed the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko over several months from 4 AU to 1.28 AU heliocentric distance, and the VIRTIS/Rosetta imaging infrared spectrometer was capable of detecting the thermal emission of the surface longward of 3 microns.The surface temperature was mapped over a large fraction of the nucleus and was previously used to derive thermal inertia of the main geomorphological units.In this presentation, we now focus on two different aspects: (1) We aim to present a complete detailed map of the thermal inertia by combining measurements of similar areas obtained at different viewing angles ; and (2) we track the evolution of the local thermal properties derived over months when the comet was moving towards perihelion. We then discuss and compare our results with the textural features observed at the surface

Identification of Ammonium Salts on Comet 67P/C-G Surface from Infrared VIRTIS/Rosetta Data Based on Laboratory Experiments. Implications and Perspectives

The nucleus of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko exhibits a broad spectral reflectance feature around 3.2 $\mu$m, which is omnipresent in all spectra of the surface, and whose attribution has remained elusive since its discovery. Based on laboratory experiments, we have shown that most of this absorption feature is due to ammonium (NH4+) salts mixed with the dark surface material. The depth of the band is compatible with semi-volatile ammonium salts being a major reservoir of nitrogen in the comet, which could dominate over refractory organic matter and volatile species. These salts may thus represent the long-sought reservoir of nitrogen in comets, possibly bringing their nitrogen-to-carbon ratio in agreement with the solar value. Moreover, the reflectance spectra of several asteroids are compatible with the presence of NH4+ salts at their surfaces. The presence of such salts, and other NH4+-bearing compounds on asteroids, comets, and possibly in proto-stellar environments, suggests that NH4+ may be a tracer of the incorporation and transformation of nitrogen in ices, minerals and organics, at different phases of the formation of the Solar System

Seasonal evolution unveils the internal structure of cometary nuclei

Remote sensing data of comets 9P/Tempel 1 and 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P hereafter) indicate the occurrence of water-ice-rich spots on the surface of cometary nuclei [1-5]. These spots are up to tens of metres in size and appear brighter and bluer than the average surface at visible wavelengths. In addition, the extensive observation campaign performed by the Visible and InfraRed Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS, [6]) and the Optical, Spectroscopic, and Infrared Remote Imaging System (OSIRIS, [7]) during the Rosetta escort phase at 67P revealed a seasonal cycle of the nucleus colour. This is characterised by blueing of the surface while approaching perihelion followed by progressive reddening and restoral of the original colour along the outbound orbit. The temporal evolution of the colour has been interpreted in previous studies as the result of increasing exposure of water ice at smaller heliocentric distances [8, 9], however, an explanation of such seasonal cycle in the context of a quantitative cometary activity model was not yet been provided. Recently, in [10] we showed that the seasonal colour cycle observed on comet 67P is determined by the occurrence of the above-mentioned water-ice-rich spots (referred to as Blue Patches - BPs -, given their colour). This can be explained in the context of activity models [11, 12] of pebble-made cometary nuclei [13], i.e. in terms of nucleus surface erosion induced by H2O and CO2 ices sublimation, driving the cometary activity. According to the scenario proposed in [10] (Fig. 1), the presence of the BPs is due to the exposure of subsurface sub-metre-sized Water-ice-Enriched Blocks (WEBs) thanks to surface erosion triggered by CO2 sublimation ejecting decimetre-sized chunks [12]. The WEBs are composed of ice-rich pebbles (dust-to-ice mass ratio δ=2, [14]), embedded in a matrix of drier pebbles (δ>>5) forming most of the nucleus. Once exposed to illumination as BPs, the WEBs are eroded by water-ice sublimation ejecting sub-cm dust [11]. By means of dedicated spectral and thermophysical modelling, we match the nucleus colour temporal evolution measured by the VIRTIS Mapping channel in the 0.55-0.8 µm spectral range. In doing this, we take into account the competing effects of CO2- and H2O-driven erosion that expose and remove the BPs, respectively, and are seasonally modulated by the insolation conditions, primarily depending on the heliocentric distance. The new nucleus model proposed in [10], implying an uneven distribution of water ice in cometary nuclei, reconciles the compositional dishomogeneities observed on comets (the BPs) at macroscopic (up to tens of metres) scale, with a structurally homogeneous pebble-made nucleus at small (centimetre) scale, and with the processes determining the cometary activity at microscopic (sub-pebble) scales. Figure 1. 67P surface gets bluer approaching perihelion as a consequence of the progressive exposure to sunlight of subsurface WEBs (from Figure 4 in Ciarniello et al., 2022, Nature Astronomy, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-022-01625-y). The comet nucleus is made of two types of pebbles, both including refractories and CO2 ice, with different water ice content: pebbles with high content of H2O ice form the WEBs, while H2O-ice-poor pebbles represent the rest of the nucleus. CO2 ice is stable beneath the CO2 sublimation front at depths >0.1 m [12]. Approaching perihelion, the CO2 ice sublimation rate increases, eroding the surface by chunk ejection and exposing the WEBs. Once exposed, WEBs lose CO2 and are observable as BPs. Water-ice sublimation erodes the BPs ejecting sub-cm dust from their surface and preventing the formation of a dry crust [11]. The BPs survive until their water-ice fraction is sublimated, producing the observed surface blueing. Please refer to ref. [10] for complete details. References [1] Sunshine, J. M. et al. (2006) Science 311, 1453-1455.[2] Filacchione, G. et al. (2016) Nature 529, 368-372.[3] Raponi, A. et al. (2016) Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 462, S476-S490.[4] Barucci, M. A. et al. (2016) Astron. Astrophys. 595, A102.[5] Oklay, N. et al. (2017) Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 469, S582-S597.[6] Coradini, A. et al. (2007) Space Sci. Rev. 128, 529-559.[7] Keller, H. U. et al. (2007) Space Sci. Rev. 128, 433-506.[8] Fornasier, S. et al. (2016) Science 354, 1566-1570.[9] Filacchione, G. et al. (2020) Nature 578, 49-52.[10] Ciarniello, M. et al. (2022) Nat. Astron. doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01625-y.[11] Fulle, M. et al. (2020) Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 493, 4039-4044.[12] Gundlach, B. et al (2020). Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 493, 3690-3715.[13] Blum, J. et al. (2017) Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 469, S755-S77.[14] O'Rourke, L. et al. (2020) Nature 586, 697-701. Acknowledgements We thank the Italian Space Agency (ASI, Italy; ASI-INAF agreements I/032/05/0 and I/024/12/0), Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES, France), and Deutsches Zentrum für Luft-und Raumfahrt (DLR, Germany) for supporting this work. VIRTIS was built by a consortium from Italy, France and Germany, under the scientific responsibility of IAPS, Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali of INAF, Rome, which also led the scientific operations. The VIRTIS instrument development for ESA has been funded and managed by ASI (Italy), with contributions from Observatoire de Meudon (France) financed by CNES and from DLR (Germany). The VIRTIS instrument industrial prime contractor was former Officine Galileo, now Leonardo Company, in Campi Bisenzio, Florence, Italy. Part of this research was supported by the ESA Express Procurement (EXPRO) RFP for IPL-PSS/JD/190.2016. D.K. acknowledges DFG-grant KA 3757/2-1. This work was supported by the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) through the ISSI International Team "Characterization of cometary activity of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko comet". This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System

Étude de la composition et des propriétés physiques de surface de la comète 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Interprétation des données VIRTIS/Rosetta et mesure en réflectance d’analogues cométaires.

During the Solar System formation, 4.6 billion years ago, comets accreted materials which have been transformed according to the physical and dynamical conditions of the accretion disk. They also accreted a part of components coming from the interstellar medium. By preserving a primordial composition, the study of comets allows us to better understand the conditions of the proto-planetary disk surrounding the young Sun of an epoch which is now inaccessible. Moreover, it consists also to understand the various comets populations, their formation process, dynamical and activity evolution as they inward and outward the Sun or their structure.The ESA/Rosetta mission followed the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko for two years. A ten of instruments has been dedicated to the study of the evolution of its activity, gas release, surface morphology, dust and other objectives. VIRTIS is a visible/infrared spectrometer instrument. It is composed of VIRTIS-M, an imaging spectrometer which gives access to spatial information with moderate spectral resolution and VIRTIS-H, a point spectrometer with a higher spectral resolution. This study is based on the data analysis of VIRTIS instruments and is divided into two parts focused on the study of the nucleus surface. The first part is an analysis of the spectral and photometric parameters: albedo, spectral slope, the main direction of the light diffusion by particles, macroscopic roughness. In a global study, I highlighted the spatial variations of albedo and spectral slope; compared results derived from different models as well as from both instruments. Then, I determined these parameters locally, revealing differences between two types of terrains. This approach allows to better understand the mechanisms linked to the activity (dust drop-off/uprising, space weathering, ice content variation) and also to the surface properties (composition, texture). The second goal of the thesis is to reproduce in the laboratory the observations realized by VIRTIS to give constraints on the composition and texture of the surface. In collaboration with IPAG (Grenoble, France) I led experiments consisting of the production of very fine powders made of materials which look like those we suspect to be present on the nucleus of 67P: organic matter (mimicked by a coal), silicates (olivine) and iron sulfides (pyrite and pyrrhotite) are all observed on comets or their analogues. I ground them to micrometric to nanometric scales and I realized reflectance measurements in the same spectral range than VIRTIS. Then, I have been able to observe effects caused by the variations of the grain size, composition or texture of the mixture and to highlight combinations reproducing the mean comet VIRTIS spectrum. Finally, this work enables us understanding the influence of material poorly studied such as iron sulfides as well as the spectral behaviour of powders composed of grain sizes reaching an order of magnitude close to the wavelengths, which is essential in the study of cometary surfaces.Lors de leur formation il y a 4,6 milliards d’années, les comètes ont intégré des matériaux transformés selon les conditions physiques et dynamiques du disque d’accrétion mais aussi une part de composés issus du milieu interstellaire. Parce qu’elles ont préservé leurs propriétés, étudier les comètes permet de mieux comprendre les conditions régnant dans le disque proto-planétaire entourant le jeune Soleil à une époque qui nous est inaccessible. Cela permet également de comprendre les différentes populations de comètes, leur processus de formation, leurs évolutions dynamiques, leur activité lorsqu’elles s’approchent du Soleil ou encore leur structure. La sonde européenne Rosetta a accompagné la comète 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko pendant deux ans. À son bord, une dizaine d’instruments ont permis d’étudier l’évolution de son activité, les gaz, la morphologie de surface ou les poussières parmi d’autres objectifs. VIRTIS est le spectromètre visible-infrarouge de Rosetta. Sa composante d’imagerie spectrale, VIRTIS-M, permet d’avoir accès à la dimension spatiale tout en bénéficiant d’une résolution spectrale modérée tandis que VIRTIS-H est un spectromètre ponctuel bénéficiant d’une plus grande résolution spectrale. Mon travail a reposé sur le traitement et l’analyse des données de ces instruments et se découpe en deux parties concentrées sur l’étude de la surface du noyau. La première est une analyse des paramètres spectraux et photométriques : albédo, pente spectrale, direction principale de la diffusion de la lumière par les particules, rugosité macroscopique. Dans une étude globale, j’ai mis en évidence les variations spatiales de certains de ces paramètres ; comparé les résultats issus de différents modèles ainsi que des deux instruments. J’ai ensuite déterminé localement ces paramètres, soulignant des différences selon le type de terrains ciblé. Ces études permettent de mieux comprendre les mécanismes liés à l’activité (dépôt/soulèvement de poussières, altération spatiale, variations de la teneur en glace) ou aux variations des propriétés de la surface (composition, texture). Le deuxième enjeu de cette thèse était de reproduire en laboratoire les observations réalisées par VIRTIS, et ce afin d’apporter des contraintes sur la composition et la texture de la surface. En collaboration avec l’IPAG de Grenoble j’ai donc mené des expériences consistant à produire des poudres très fines constituées de matériaux similaires à ceux que l’on suspecte d’être présents sur le noyau de 67P : matière organique (imitée par un charbon), silicates (olivine) et sulfures de fer (pyrite et pyrrhotite) sont ainsi tous observés dans les comètes ou leurs analogues. Je les ai ici broyés à des échelles micrométriques à nanométriques puis j’ai réalisé des mesures en réflectance dans la même gamme spectrale que VIRTIS. J’ai pu ainsi étudier les effets provoqués par les variations de la taille des grains, de la composition ou de la texture du mélange, mettant en avant des combinaisons reproduisant le spectre moyen de la comète. De manière générale, cette étude permet de mieux comprendre l’influence de matériaux rarement étudiés comme les sulfures de fer ainsi que le comportement spectral de poudres dont la taille des grains atteint un ordre de grandeur proche de celle de la longueur d’onde, ce qui est primordial dans l’étude des surfaces cométaires

Study of the composition and physical properties of the surface of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko : VIRTIS/Rosetta data interpretation and reflectance measurement of cometary analogs

Lors de leur formation il y a 4,6 milliards d’années, les comètes ont intégré des matériaux transformés selon les conditions physiques et dynamiques du disque d’accrétion mais aussi une part de composés issus du milieu interstellaire. Parce qu’elles ont préservé leurs propriétés, étudier les comètes permet de mieux comprendre les conditions régnant dans le disque proto-planétaire entourant le jeune Soleil à une époque qui nous est inaccessible. Cela permet également de comprendre les différentes populations de comètes, leur processus de formation, leurs évolutions dynamiques, leur activité lorsqu’elles s’approchent du Soleil ou encore leur structure.La sonde européenne Rosetta a accompagné la comète 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko pendant deux ans. À son bord, une dizaine d’instruments ont permis d’étudier l’évolution de son activité, les gaz, la morphologie de surface ou les poussières parmi d’autres objectifs. VIRTIS est le spectromètre visible-infrarouge de Rosetta. Sa composante d’imagerie spectrale, VIRTIS-M, permet d’avoir accès à la dimension spatiale tout en bénéficiant d’une résolution spectrale modérée tandis que VIRTIS-H est un spectromètre ponctuel bénéficiant d’une plus grande résolution spectrale. Mon travail a reposé sur le traitement et l’analyse des données de ces instruments et se découpe en deux parties concentrées sur l’étude de la surface du noyau.La première est une analyse des paramètres spectraux et photométriques : albédo, pente spectrale, direction principale de la diffusion de la lumière par les particules, rugosité macroscopique. Dans une étude globale, j’ai mis en évidence les variations spatiales de certains de ces paramètres ; comparé les résultats issus de différents modèles ainsi que des deux instruments. J’ai ensuite déterminé localement ces paramètres, soulignant des différences selon le type de terrains ciblé. Ces études permettent de mieux comprendre les mécanismes liés à l’activité (dépôt/soulèvement de poussières, altération spatiale, variations de la teneur en glace) ou aux variations des propriétés de la surface (composition, texture).Le deuxième enjeu de cette thèse était de reproduire en laboratoire les observations réalisées par VIRTIS, et ce afin d’apporter des contraintes sur la composition et la texture de la surface. En collaboration avec l’IPAG de Grenoble j’ai donc mené des expériences consistant à produire des poudres très fines constituées de matériaux similaires à ceux que l’on suspecte d’être présents sur le noyau de 67P : matière organique (imitée par un charbon), silicates (olivine) et sulfures de fer (pyrite et pyrrhotite) sont ainsi tous observés dans les comètes ou leurs analogues. Je les ai ici broyés à des échelles micrométriques à nanométriques puis j’ai réalisé des mesures en réflectance dans la même gamme spectrale que VIRTIS. J’ai pu ainsi étudier les effets provoqués par les variations de la taille des grains, de la composition ou de la texture du mélange, mettant en avant des combinaisons reproduisant le spectre moyen de la comète. De manière générale, cette étude permet de mieux comprendre l’influence de matériaux rarement étudiés comme les sulfures de fer ainsi que le comportement spectral de poudres dont la taille des grains atteint un ordre de grandeur proche de celle de la longueur d’onde, ce qui est primordial dans l’étude des surfaces cométaires.During the Solar System formation, 4.6 billion years ago, comets accreted materials which have been transformed according to the physical and dynamical conditions of the accretion disk but also a part of components coming from the interstellar medium. By preserving a primordial composition, the study of comets allows us to better understand the conditions of the proto-planetary disk surrounding the young Sun of an epoch which is now inaccessible. Moreover, it consists also to understand the various comets populations, their formation process, dynamical and activity evolution as they inward and outward the Sun or their structure.The ESA/Rosetta mission followed the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko during two years. A ten of instruments has been dedicated to the study of the evolution of its activity, gas release, surface morphology, dust and other objectives. VIRTIS is a visible/infrared spectrometer instrument. It is composed of VIRTIS-M, an imaging spectrometer which gives access to spatial information with moderate spectral resolution and VIRTIS-H, a point spectrometer with a higher spectral resolution. This study is based on the data analysis of VIRTIS instruments and is divided into two parts focused on the study of the nucleus surface.The first part is an analysis of the spectral and photometric parameters: albedo, spectral slope, the main direction of the light diffusion by particles, macroscopic roughness. In a global study, I highlighted the spatial variations of albedo and spectral slope; compared results derived from different models as well as from both instruments. Then, I determined these parameters locally, revealing differences between two types of terrains. This approach allows to better understand the mechanisms linked to the activity (dust drop-off/uprising, space weathering, ice content variation) and also to the surface properties (composition, texture).The second goal of the thesis is to reproduce in the laboratory the observations realized by VIRTIS to give constraints on the composition and texture of the surface. In collaboration with IPAG (Grenoble, France) I led experiments consisting of the production of very fine powders made of materials which look like those we suspect to be present on the nucleus of 67P: organic matter (mimicked by a coal), silicates (olivine) and iron sulfides (pyrite and pyrrhotite) are all observed on comets or their analogues. I ground them to micrometric to nanometric scales and I realized reflectance measurements in the same spectral range than VIRTIS. Then, I have been able to observe effects caused by the variations of the grain size, composition or texture of the mixture and to highlight combinations reproducing the mean comet VIRTIS spectrum. Finally, this work enables us understanding the influence of material poorly studied such as iron sulfides as well as the spectral behaviour of powders composed of grain sizes reaching an order of magnitude close to the wavelengths, which is essential in the study of cometary surfaces

Using TOPCAT with sparse measurements on planetary surfaces

International audienc