Modelling the electrical resistivity of green carbon anodes for aluminium industry

L’aluminium primaire produit de nos jours est obtenu par l’électrolyse de l’alumine à 960 °C, suivant le procédé proposé par Charles Martin Hall, et Paul Louis-Toussain Héroult, en 1886. Ce procédé, communément appelé Hall-Héroult, du nom de ceux qui l’ont proposé, consiste à imposer un courant électrique au travers un mélange de cryolithe fondue dans laquelle est dissoute l’alumine. Le courant circule entre les anodes et la cathode de carbone. Les anodes sont principalement composées de coke de pétrole calciné et du reste non consommé des anodes usagées, que l’on appelle mégot. Toutes ces particules carbonées sont liées à l’aide de brai de houille (pitch). Une fois le bloc anodique formé, il doit être cuit afin de lui conférer une bonne tenue mécanique. Pour permettre un rendement efficace lors de ce procédé, les anodes, qui amènent le courant, doivent avoir une résistivité électrique la plus faible possible. De plus, ces anodes, consommables, servent aussi d’apport pour le carbone nécessaire à la réaction d’électrolyse, leur composition chimique doit par conséquent être suffisamment pure pour ne pas affecter la qualité de l’aluminium produit. Le projet de recherche présenté ici se focalise sur l’étude et la compréhension du comportement électrique de l’anode avant sa cuisson à des fins de contrôle de qualité en cours de fabrication. Pour déterminer la résistivité électrique d’un matériau composite, le modèle mathématique de Nielsen semble être un outil très intéressant et polyvalent dans différentes applications de modélisation de la résistivité électrique. Pour utiliser ce modèle, il est nécessaire de connaître certaines propriétés des différentes phases constituant l’anode. Dans le cas présent, le matériau anodique sera limité à une fraction de tailles de particules de coke de pétrole et la matrice liante, composée du pitch et de particules fines de coke de pétrole. Les propriétés à connaître sont, pour les particules de coke, leur résistivité électrique intrinsèque, leur rapport de forme, ainsi que la compacité maximale qui puisse être obtenu avec ce matériau. Seule la résistivité électrique de la matrice liante est à connaître nécessairement. Dans l’industrie de l’aluminium, seule la résistivité électrique d’un lit des particules est mesurée pour suivre l’évolution de ce paramètre suivant les différents lots utilisés. Pour implémenter la résistivité électrique du coke dans le modèle de Nielsen, il est nécessaire de déterminer la résistivité électrique intrinsèque du coke. Afin de déterminer cette valeur, des mesures de résistivité électriques ont été faites en utilisant une méthode quatre pointes, qui permet de mesurer la résistivité électrique des matériaux dont la résistivité est faible. Ensuite, le vide inter particulaire présent dans le volume de mesure est retranché afin de ne compter que le volume occupé par le matériau. Finalement, les contacts entre particules ont été estimés par calcul numérique, en utilisant la méthode des éléments discrets. Le nombre, la surface moyenne et la disposition de ces contacts ont été évalués afin d’être implémentés dans un modèle mathématique permettant de calculer la résistivité électrique du coke. Différentes mesures ont permis de proposer une valeur cohérente et acceptable pour la résistivité électrique du coke. Afin de mesurer la résistivité électrique de la matrice liante ainsi que de l’anode, une méthode précise est requise. La méthode standardisée utilisée par l’industrie montre de grands écarts à la moyenne et des valeurs souvent peu reproductibles. La méthode de mesure de la résistivité électrique proposée par Van der Pauw permet d’obtenir des résultats avec une plus grande reproductibilité et un écart à la moyenne fortement amoindri. Cette méthode peut être utile pour mesurer la résistivité électrique des sections coupées dans une carotte d’anode ou de matrice liante moulée. Différentes mesures, effectuées sur des échantillons type anode de différentes compositions ont révélé que la résistivité électrique mesurée en laboratoire ne correspond pas à celle calculée en utilisant le modèle de Nielsen, intégrant les paramètres physiques des matériaux utilisés. Pour expliquer la divergence entre le modèle et les mesures de laboratoire, une analyse en microscopie optique a été effectuée. Il a été révélé que l’épaisseur de la couche de matrice liante entre les particules demeure trop grande pour permettre la création d’un chemin électrique de particule à particule dans le matériau. Ceci implique que la résistivité électrique de la matrice liante impose principalement la résistivité électrique du composite, dans ce cas.Primary aluminium produced nowadays is obtained by electrolysis of alumina at 960 °C, following the process proposed by Charles Martin Hall, and Paul Louis Toussain Héroult, in 1886. This process, named Hall-Héroult, due to the name of its creators, consists in applying an electrical current trough a mix of molten cryolithe in which is dissolved alumina. The current flows between the carbon anodes and the cathode. Anodes are mostly composed of calcined petroleum coke aggregates and remnant particles of used anodes, butt particles. Those carbonaceous particles are tied together using coal tar pitch. Once the anode bloc is formed, it is backed to gain mechanical strength. To allow an efficient yield during the electrolysis process, anodes, through which the current flows, shall have the lowest electrical resistivity. Furthermore, those consumable anodes, are also required to bring the carbon as reactant for the electrolytic reaction, consequently, their chemical composition must be pure enough not to diminish the produced aluminium quality. The research project presented focuses on the study and understanding of electrical behaviour of the anode prior to its backing, for quality control during manufacturing process. To determine the electrical resistivity of a composite material, Nielsen’s model appears as an interesting tool, reliable for multiple electrical modelling applications. Using this model implies knowing several properties of the different phases present in the anode. In the present case, anode material is restricted to a specific size fraction of coke particles and binder matrix, made of pitch and fine particles. The properties to know are, for the coke particles, their intrinsic electrical resistivity, aspect ratio, and the maximal packing fraction that can be reached. Only electrical resistivity is required for the binder matrix. In aluminium industry, only the electrical resistivities of beds of particles are measured to follow the evolution of this parameter depending the batch used. To implement the electrical resistivity of coke particles in Nielsen model, its intrinsic electrical resistivity is required. To obtain this value, measurement were performed using four probes setting, which allows measuring the electrical resistivity of material presenting low resistivity. Then, inter-particles void present in the measurement volume shall be removed in order to only take account of the volume occupied by the material investigated. Finally, the contacts between particles are estimated by numerical calculation, using discrete element method. The number, average surface and disposition of the contacts were assessed to implement them in a mathematical model allowing calculating the electrical resistivity of coke. Several measures lead to the proposition of a consistent and reliable value for electrical resistivity of coke. To measure the electrical resistivity of binder matrix, as well as the anode’s, an accurate method is required. The standardised method used in the industry reveals strong standard deviation and rather not often reproducible values. The method of measurement of electrical resistivity of continuous phases proposed by Van der Pauw allows retrieving highly reproducible results, with a much lower standard deviation. This technique can be useful to measure the electrical resistivity of slices cut out of anode cores or cast binder matrix. Several measurements, performed on anode like samples with different composition revealed that the electrical resistivity measured in laboratory does not fit with the one calculated using Nielsen’s model, using the physical parameters of the characterized materials. To explain the difference, between the model and laboratory measurements, an optical microscopic analysis was performed. It was disclosed that the binder matrix layer between particles remain too thick to allow the creation of an electrical path from particle to particle within the material. This implies that the electrical resistivity of the binder matrix mostly dictates the one of the composite material, in this case

Tropical sloughing phagedoena: on a recent epidemic of phagedenic ulcers in Mauritius with special reference to the etiology of the disease

1.The Epidemic ulcers which prevailed in Mauritius in 1903, 1904 and 1905 were clinically identical with the Ulcers originally described as Ulcères de Mozambique, de Cochinchine, de Yérnen etc and now included under the generic ter:1 of Tropical Sloughing Phagedoena.2. The disease affected almost solely people walking barefooted viz:-Indians and African creoles.3. It prevailed with greatest intensity in the hot and rainy months.4. In the majority of the cases, the phagedlienic process invaded preexisting sores or wounds, sometimes of a trifling nature. In a few cases, however, there was positively no history of traumatism.5. In the majority of the cases, likewise patients affected were already depressed and weakened by some constitutional disease.The chief predisposing cause in this respect appeared to be Malarial Cachexia.6. In a few cases, at the outset of the Epidemic, there was no coexisting constitutional diseases and the patients general condition was satisfactory. In such cases, the ulcers had invariably a mild character and were rapidly cured.7. The disease presented itself under two different forms: a mild one and a severe one, the former being the predominating type in this Epidemic.8. The disease proved very amenable to treatment as out of 852 cases treated in the hospitals of the Colony in 1904 only two had a fatal termination.9. The local treatment which was found most successful at the Civil Hospital in the mild and moderately severe cases was repeated applications of pure Carbolic Acid or Phenol Carnphor. The severest cases necessitated surgical interference.10. A notile Bacillus, morphologically and biologically identical with that described by Crendiropoulo in 1897 in Ulcère de Yémen, was present in all cases in the exudation from the cleaned ulcer.11. The constancy of the presence of this Bacillus in very large number and frequently alone in the sores tends to indicate that it is really the micro-organism concerned in the etiology of the Sloughing Phagedoena which prevailed in Mauritius in the last three years.12. The great motility of this Bacillus, as contrasted with the absence of motility in the case of Vincent's Bacillus, would indicate that Tropical Sloughing Phagedoena is distinct from the Hospital Gangrene of Temperate Zones.13. The fact that only barefooted individuals were attacked and the lower extremities usually affected would show that the usual habitat of the pathogenic organism concerned was probably the soil.14. The contagiousness of the disease was not clearly demonstrated, at least to my knowledge, in this epidemic.Instances of secondary infection in the same person were met with but there was no evidence of the disease having spread by contact among members of the same family.In the interesting case referred to above where the typical phagedenic ulcer was detected in the Vagina, the mode of infection could not be traced for obvious reasons, the patient being unmarried

Assessing the role of dispersed floralresources for managed bees in providingsupporting ecosystem services for croppollination

Most pollination ecosystem services studies have focussed on wild pollinators and their dependence on natural floral resources adjacent to crop fields. However, managed pollinators depend on a mixture of floral resources that are spatially separated from the crop field. Here, we consider the supporting role these resources play as an ecosystem services provider to quantify the use and availability of floral resources, and to estimate their relative contribution to support pollination services of managed honeybees. Beekeepers supplying pollination services to the Western Cape deciduous fruit industry were interviewed to obtain information on their use of floral resources. For 120 apiary sites, we also analysed floral resources within a two km radius of each site based on geographic data. The relative availability of floral resources at sites was compared to regional availability. The relative contribution of floral resources-types to sustain managed honeybees was estimated. Beekeepers showed a strong preference for eucalypts and canola. Beekeepers selectively placed more hives at sites with eucalypt and canola and less with natural vegetation. However, at the landscape-scale, eucalypt was the least available resource, whereas natural vegetation was most common. Based on analysis of apiary sites, we estimated that 700,818 ha of natural vegetation, 73,910 ha of canola fields, and 10,485 ha of eucalypt are used to support the managed honeybee industry in the Western Cape. Whereas the Cape managed honeybee system uses a bee native to the region, alien plant species appear disproportionately important among the floral resources being exploited. We suggest that an integrated approach, including evidence from interview and landscape data, and fine-scale biological data is needed to study floral resources supporting managed honeybees

USPTO Issues Supplementary Examination Guidelines Explaining the Requirement for Clarity in Patent Claims

The US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) recently published Supplementary Examination Guidelines on the requirement that proper patent claims must allow the public to clearly distinguish what infringes from what does not. The Guidelines focus to some degree on computer-implemented inventions. The Guidelines acknowledge that computer implemented inventions have “unique examination issues.” But the Guidelines are important to patent applicants in all fields, perhaps more so in newer technologies with developing terminology, or where the invention is otherwise difficult to put into words

Developing long-term monitoring of natural areas for a Unesco world heritage site: study case of la Reunion

La Réunion island, in the Mascarenes, has been recognized as a World Heritage site for its Piton, Cirques and Remparts since 2010. The site, coinciding with the core zone of La Réunion National Park, represents 100000 ha, equivalent to 40 % of the island. These dramatic landscapes of rugged terrain, impressive escarpments, forested gorges are dominated by three cliff-rimmed cirques and two volcanoes ― a dormant massif forming the highest peak, Piton des Neiges (3069 m), and in the eastern part of the island lies the very active volcano, the Piton de la Fournaise (2632 m). The island harbours a wide variety of natural habitats (tropical montane cloud forests, subalpine shrublands, lowland forests, dry forest…), now all remnant in the Mascarene archipelago, that host high levels of endemism for both flora and fauna. Thereby, La Réunion is the most significant contributor towards conservation of terrestrial biodiversity in the Mascarene islands. The Divines project (FEDER) aims at developing innovative methods for characterizing and monitoring terrestrial biodiversity in the long term for conservation managers to ensure the protection of this world heritage site. In this poster, a description of the goals, actions and preliminary results of the DIVINES project will be described from gene to ecosystem levels

Ultraslow light propagation in an inhomogeneously broadened rare-earth ion-doped crystal

We show that Coherent Population Oscillations effect allows to burn a narrow spectral hole (26Hz) within the homogeneous absorption line of the optical transition of an Erbium ion-doped crystal. The large dispersion of the index of refraction associated with this hole permits to achieve a group velocity as low as 2.7m/s with a ransmission of 40%. We especially benefit from the inhomogeneous absorption broadening of the ions to tune both the transmission coefficient, from 40% to 90%, and the light group velocity from 2.7m/s to 100m/s

Collaborative stewardship in multifunctional landscapes: Toward relational, pluralistic approaches

Landscape stewardship offers a means to put social-ecological approaches to stewardship into practice. The growing interest in landscape stewardship has led to a focus on multistakeholder collaboration. Although there is a significant body of literature on collaborative management and governance of natural resources, the particular challenges posed by multifunctional landscapes, in which there are often contested interests, require closer attention. We present a case study from South Africa to investigate how collaborative stewardship can be fostered in contested multifunctional landscapes. We conducted this research through an engaged transdisciplinary research partnership in which we integrated social-ecological practitioner and academic knowledge to gain an in-depth understanding of the challenges of fostering collaboration. We identified five overarching factors that influence collaboration: contextual, institutional, social-relational, individual, and political-historical. Collaborative stewardship approaches focused on the development of formal governance institutions appear to be most successful if enabling individual and social-relational conditions are in place. Our case study, characterized by high social diversity, inequity, and contestation, suggests that consensus-driven approaches to collaboration are unlikely to result in equitable and sustainable landscape stewardship in such contexts. We therefore suggest an approach that focuses on enhancing individual and social-relational enablers. Moreover, we propose a bottom-up patchwork approach to collaborative stewardship premised on the notion of pluralism. This would focus on building new interpersonal relationships and collaborative capacity through small collective actions. Taking a relational, pluralistic approach to fostering collaborative stewardship is particularly important in contested, socially heterogeneous landscapes. Drawing on our study and the literature, we propose guiding principles for implementing relational, pluralistic approaches to collaborative stewardship and suggest future research directions for supporting such approaches